Introduction to computer science

Michael A. Nielsen

University of Queensland

Goals:
1. Introduce the notion of the computational complexity
of a problem, and define the major computational
complexity classes.
2. Explain how to compute reversibly.
 Q: Is there a general algorithm to
determine whether a mathematical
conjecture is true or false?

Church-Turing:
NO!

 Turing
Machine
Ad hoc empirical
justification!
Computer science
Church-Turing thesis: Any algorithmic process can be
simulated on a Turing machine – an idealized and rigorously
defined mathematical model of a computing device.
 “Turing machines”
Many different models of computation are equivalent
to the Turing machine (TM).
We will use a model other than the TM for reasons of
both pedagogy and utility.

Program: 01001100…010
Input: 11101100101…..........
INPUT
x = “I like quantum information science” Workspace: 000………………………….

PROGRAM Output: 11001..…………………….

FOR j = 1:LENGTH(x)
OUTPUT x
NEXT
 How to number programs and their inputs

The program and input for a universal

computer can be uniquely encoded
as a pair of positive integers.

INPUT
x = “I like quantum information science” binary
0001100001… 123456789
PROGRAM

FOR j = 1:LENGTH(x) binary

OUTPUT x
NEXT 110011001… 987654321
 The halting problem
Does program number x halt on input of x?
0 if program x halts on input x
h (x )  
1 otherwise
Is there an algorithm to solve the halting problem, that
is, to compute h(x)?
PROGRAM: TURING(x)
Suppose such an algorithm exists.
IF h(x) = 1 THEN
Let T be the program number for
HALT
TURING.
ELSE
Contradiction! loop forever

h(T) = 0 TURING(T) halts h(T) = 1

Exercise: Show that there is no algorithm
to determine whether program number x
halts with input y.
Exercise: Show that there is no algorithm
to determine whether program number x
halts with input 0.
 What is the relationship of the
halting problem to Hilbert’s problem?
Conjecture: Program number x halts on input of x.
No algorithm exists to prove or refute this conjecture,
in general.
Isn’t this a rather artificial conjecture?

Conjecture: Topological space X is topologically equivalent

to topological space Y.

Many other “natural” mathematical conjectures cannot

be algorithmically decided.
 Computational complexity theory
Goal: A general theory of the resources needed
to solve computational problems.

What types of resources?

time energy
space

What types of computational problems?

composing a poem optimization

sorting a database decision problem

 Decision problems
A decision problem is a computational problem with
a yes or no answer.

Example: Is the number n prime?

Why focus on decision problems?

Decision problems are simple: This makes it easy
to develop a rigorous mathematical theory.

Decision problems are surprisingly general:

Many other problems can be recast in terms of
decision problems that are essentially equivalent.
Recasting other problems as decision problems
Multiplication problem: What is the product of m and n?
Multiplication decision problem: Is the kth bit of
the product of m and n a one?
Time required to solve one of these problems
is the same (to within a small overhead) as
the time required to solve the other.
Factoring problem: What is the smallest non-trivial
factor of n?
Factoring decision problem: Does n have a non-trivial
factor smaller than k?
Time required to solve one of these problems
is the same (to within a small overhead) as
the time required to solve the other.
 Efficiency
insoluble insoluble

soluble
soluble hard
soluble

easy

Nomenclature: easy = “tractable” = “efficiently computable”

hard = “intractable” = “not efficiently computable”
Definition: A problem is easy if there is a Turing machine
to solve the problem that runs in time polynomial in the
size of the problem input. Otherwise the problem is hard.
This definition is usually applied to both decision
problems and more general problems.
 Why polynomial-time = “easy”
It’s a rule of thumb: in practice, problems with
polynomial-time solutions are usually found to be easily
soluble, while problems without are usually found to be
rather difficult.

In practice, a super-polynomial algorithm whose running

time as a function of the input size, n , is n log(n ) is likely
preferable to a poly-time algorithm taking time n 10000 .

The way to think about the polynomial versus

non-polynomial distinction is as a first-cut analysis.
Finer distinctions can wait until later.
 Why polynomial-time = “easy”
Christos H. Papadimitriou, “Computational Complexity”:
“It should not come as a surprise that our choice of
polynomial algorithms as the mathematical concept that is
supposed to capture the informal notion of “practically
efficient computation” is open to criticism from all sides.”
“[…] Ultimately, our argument for our choice must be this:
Adopting polynomial worst-case performance as our
criterion of efficiency results in an elegant and useful
theory that says something meaningful about practical
computation, and would be impossible without this
simplification.”
 Our first computational complexity class: “P”
Definition: The set of all decision problems soluble in
polynomial time on a Turing machine is denoted P.

decision problems

P
“easy” problems

Terminology: “Multiplication is in P” Technical caveat: Allowing

means “The multiplication decision the Turing machine to do random
problem is in P”. coin flips appears to help.
“Factoring is thought not to be in P” The set of all decision problems
means “The factoring decision soluble on a (randomized)
problem is thought not to be in P”. Turing machine is denoted BPP.
 The strong Church-Turing thesis
Doesn’t the definition of P depend upon the computational
model used in the statement of the definition, namely,
the Turing machine?
Church-Turing thesis: Any algorithmic
process can be simulated on a Turing
machine.

Strong Church-Turing thesis: Any physically reasonable

algorithmic process can be simulated on a Turing machine,
with at most a polynomial slowdown in the number of steps
required to do the simulation.
Ad hoc empirical justification!
The strong Church-Turing thesis implies that the problems
in P are precisely those for which a polynomial-time solution
is the best possible, in any physically reasonable model of
computation.
 The strong Church-Turing thesis
Strong Church-Turing thesis: Any physically reasonable
algorithmic process can be simulated on a Turing machine,
with at most a polynomial slowdown in the number of steps
required to do the simulation.

Deutsch: Maybe computers based on quantum

mechanics might violate the strong
Church-Turing thesis?

Nonetheless, a remarkably wide range of computational

models satisfy the strong Church-Turing thesis, and it
can serve as the basis for a useful theory of
computational complexity.
Many important problems aren’t known to be in P
Example: Factoring.
Example: The traveling salesman problem (TSP).
22 km 23 km

12 km
15 km
19 km 14 km

16 km

Goal: Find the shortest tour through all the cities.

Traveling salesman decision problem: Given a network

and a number, k, is there a tour through all the cities
of length less than k?

It is widely believed that neither of these problems is in P.

 Witnesses
Determining whether 7747 has a factor less than
70 is thought to be hard.
Verifying that 61 is a factor of 7747 (= 127 x 61) less than
70 is easy: just check that 61 < 70 and use the efficient
long-division algorithm you learnt in school.
The factoring decision problem has witnesses to
yes instances of the problem – informally, solutions
to the factoring problem, which can be checked in
polynomial time.
It does not follow that there are easily-checkable
witnesses for no instances, like “Does 7747 have a
factor less than 60?”
TSP seems to be hard, but also has easily-checked
witnesses for yes instances.
 NP
Definition: The complexity class NP consists of all
decision problems for which yes instances of the problem
have witnesses checkable in polynomial time on a Turing
machine.
Examples: The factoring and TSP decision problems.
Example: The Hamiltonian cycle problem: is there a tour
that goes through each vertex in the graph exactly once?

Many important optimization problems are in NP – it is

often hard to find a solution, but easy to verify a solution
once it is found.
 The relationship of P to NP

decision problems

NP P

P  NP: Yes instances for problems in P can be verified

in polynomial time, even without a witness.
Is P  NP?
(US) $1,000,000 dollars for a solution:
http://www.claymath.org
Why proving P  NP is harder than it looks
Intuition: There is no better way of finding a solution
than searching through most possible witness.
Example: The Hamiltonian cycle problem: is there a tour
that goes through each vertex in the graph exactly once?

Intuition: To determine whether

there is a Hamiltonian cycle, the
best way is to search through all
possible cycles.
Euler’s problem: Is there a tour of a graph that visits
each edge exactly once?
Exercise: Prove Euler’s theorem: A connected graph
contains an Euler cycle iff each vertex has an even
number of incident edges. Use this to argue that
Euler’s problem is in P.
 Example: Graph isomorphism problem
Graph 1 Graph 2

Problem: Is Graph 1 isomorphic to Graph 2?

Worked exercise: Prove that the graph isomorphism
problem is in NP.

Research problem: Prove that the graph isomorphism

problem is not in P.
 Reducibility
We say problem X is reducible to problem Y if, given
an oracle to solve problem Y in one step, there is an
algorithm to solve problem X in polynomial time.
Example: The Hamiltonian cycle problem can be
reduced to the travelling salesman problem.

Does this graph have a

Hamiltonian cycle?

1km 1km

Is there a tour of less

1km
1km
1km 1km 1km than 8 kilometers?
 Ladner The structure of NP
NP
NPI Definition: A problem is
NP- NP-complete if it is in NP
complete P
and every other problem
in NP reduces to it.

Not obvious that NP-complete problems even exist!

Cook-Levin Theorem: Provided the first example of
an NP-complete problem – the satisfiability problem.
Thousands of other problems are now known to be
NP-complete, including the travelling salesman and
Hamiltonian cycle problems.
Many people believe that quantum computers won’t
efficiently solve NP-complete problems, but maybe
can solve some problems in NPI. Candidates for NPI
include factoring and graph isomorphism.
Research problem: Find an efficient quantum algorithm
to solve the graph isomorphism problem.
 The circuit model of computation
Real computers are finite devices, not infinite,
like the Turing machine.
We will investigate a circuit model of computation,
and explain how to define computational complexity
classes in that model.

Quantum computers are most conveniently understood

in terms of the quantum circuit model of computation.
 Examples of circuits

x x x NOT x 1

x x x
NAND 1  x y
y y y x
controlled-not gate (CNOT)

AND 0 Basic elements

x NOT wires (memory)
one- and two-bit gates
x fanout
NAND 1
0 ancilla – bits in pre-prepared
states.
 Universality in the circuit model

Exercise: Prove that the NAND gate can be used to

simulate the AND, XOR and NOT gates, provided
wires, fanout, and ancilla are available.

Exercise: Prove that the NAND gate, wires,

fanout and ancilla can be used to compute an
arbitrary function f(.) with n input bits, and one
output bit. (Hint: Induct on n.)

We say that the NAND gate, wires, fanout and ancilla

form a universal set of operations for computation.

Exercise: Prove that there is a function f(.), as

above, that takes at least 2n gates to compute.
 The circuit model and complexity classes
Can we connect the circuit model to complexity classes
like P and NP? n-bit
input
Basic idea is to introduce a family
of circuits, Cn, indexed by the Cn
problem size, n.

Main point is that (modulo some technicalities) a problem

is in P iff there is a family of circuits to solve the problem,
Cn, containing a number of elements polynomial in n.

Technicalities (in brief): Our intrepid engineer needs a

construction algorithm (i.e. a Turing machine) to build the
circuit Cn, given n. This algorithm should run in polynomial
time. Such a circuit family is called a uniform circuit family.
 Irreversibility of circuit elements

0 1
NAND 1 NAND 1
1 0

From the output of the NAND gate it is impossible to

determine if the input was (0,1), (1,0), or (0,0).
The NAND gate is irreversible: there is no logic gate
capable of inverting the NAND.
Landauer’s principle: Any irreversible operation in a circuit
is necessarily accompanied by the dissipation of heat.
Can we compute without dissipating heat? The trick is
to compute using only reversible circuit elements!
Importance to us: not heat dissipation, but the fact that
quantum gates are most naturally viewed as reversible gates.
 Some reversible circuit elements
x
x x x x

y y x y y
y x

The Toffoli gate (or controlled-controlled-not).

x
x x x x
y
y y y y
z z  x y z z
z  x y
How to compute using reversible circuit elements
Idea: embed irreversible gates in reversible gates,
making use of extra ancilla bits.

Example: The reversible NAND gate.

x x
y y

1 1 x  y
How to compute using reversible circuit elements

Example: fanout.

x x

0 x
How to compute using reversible circuit elements
Original circuit: uses NAND gates, wires,
fanout, and ancilla

x f f (x )

Reversible circuit: uses CNOT and Toffoli

gates, wires, and ancilla
x f (x )

f'
0, 0,...., 0 gx

Up to constant factors the resource requirements in the two

models are the same, so complexity classes like P and NP do
not change in a reversible circuit model of computation.
 Can we eliminate the garbage?
z z  f (x )

x x
f (x )
f' (f ') 1
0, 0,..., 0 0, 0,..., 0
gx

Canonical form: (x,z)  ( x , z  f ( x ))

Complexity classes like P and NP are again unchanged.

Exercise: Show that it is impossible to do universal

computation using only one- and two-bit reversible
logic gates.
Digression: what can be measured in quantum mechanics?
Computer science can inspire fundamental questions about
physics.
We may take an “informatic” approach to physics.
(Compare the physical approach to information.)

Problem: What measurements can be performed in

quantum mechanics?
Digression: what can be measured in quantum mechanics?

“Traditional” approach to quantum measurements:

A quantum measurement is described by an observable,
M, that is, a Hermitian operator acting on the state space
of the system.
Measuring a system prepared in an eigenstate of
M gives the corresponding eigenvalue of M as the
measurement outcome.

“The question now presents itself – Can every observable

be measured? The answer theoretically is yes. In practice
it may be very awkward, or perhaps even beyond the ingenuity
of the experimenter, to devise an apparatus which could
measure some particular observable, but the theory always
allows one to imagine that the measurement could be made.”
- Paul A. M. Dirac
 The halting observable
Consider a quantum system with an infinite-dimensional
state space with orthonormal basis 0 , 1 , 2 ,


M  h (x ) x
x 0
x

Can we build a measuring device capable of measuring

the halting observable?

Yes: Would give us a procedure to solve the

halting problem.
No: There is an interesting class of “superselection”
rules controlling what observables may, in fact,
be measured.
Research problem: Is the halting observable
really measurable? If so, how? If not,
why not?