LECTURE

SOURCE CODING
PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
 Types of Signals
Analog domain describes the signal which are continuous, both in time and
amplitude/signal values.

Digital domain encompasses all the signal which are discrete, both in time and
amplitude/signal values.

Except for these two types of signals, there are certain signal which have the
properties from both these domains.
Types of Signals
Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is The essential steps of PCM are
sometimes known as waveform ◦ Filtering.
coding as it creates the a coded form ◦ Sampling
of original waveform.
◦ Quantization.
◦ Encoding.
To transmit the human voice digitally,
the analog sound waveform is
converted into digital format using
Pulse Code Modulation.

The Pulse Code modulation consists

of four essential steps/ sub processes.
Pulse Code Modulation-
Filtering
The filtering is used to eliminate The filter is designed in such a way to
the high frequency content of the remove all the frequencies above
signal. 3kHz.

Which type of filter is used?

Most of the energy in human voice
is concentrated in 200-2800 Hz. To
accommodate this signal a The filtering process is necessary in
bandwidth of 3kHz is assumed. order to prevent aliasing so this filter is
also termed as anti-aliasing filter.

For hardware implementation

bandwidth of 4 kHz is allowed. Details of aliasing shall be covered
later.
 Pulse Code Modulation-
Sampling
The second step of this conversion is The frequency of the pulse train is
Sampling. constant. This frequency is known
as sampling frequency Fs. What
should be the sampling frequency?
The filtered signal is sampled at a
constant frequency using a process
known as Pulse Amplitude
Modulation (PAM).

In Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

original signal is used to modulate the
amplitude of the pulse train having a
constant frequency and amplitude.

http://www.engineersgarage.com/sites/default/files/imagecache/Original/wysiwyg_imageupload/4214/Pulse-Amplitude-Modulation-(PAM).jpg
Basic elements of a PCM system
Sampling Frequency and
Nyquist Criterion
The sampling frequency is chosen In terms of time, the Nyquist
according to the Nyquist Sampling sampling criterion can be expressed
Theorem. as
Ts > 1/(2fmax)
The Nyquist sampling theorem states that
the original signal can be reconstructed
only if enough samples are taken. This is
possible if the sampling frequency is The sampling rate fs = 2fmax is known
greater than twice the maximum as Nyquist Rate.
frequency of the signal to be sampled.

If Nyquist criterion is not satisfied, a

fs > 2fmax
phenomena known as Aliasing occurs
where fs= Sampling frequency and the original signal cannot be
fmax= Maximum signal frequency reconstructed at the receiver.
 Sampling Theory
In many applications, e.g. PCM, it is useful to represent a signal in terms of
sample values taken at appropriately spaced intervals.
The signal can be reconstructed from the sampled waveform by passing it
through an ideal low pass filter.
In order to ensure a faithful reconstruction, the original signal must be
sampled at an appropriate rate as described in the Nyquist’s sampling
theorem.
◦ A real-valued band-limited signal having no spectral components above a frequency
of B Hz is determined uniquely by its values at uniform intervals spaced no greater
than seconds apart.
Sampling Theory

1
Gs ( )  G ( ) * F [ Ts (t )]
2
Impulse Sampling
Impulse Sampling
Sampling Visualized in
Frequency Domain
 Interpolation

From the spectrum of the sampled signal, we can see that the original
signal can be recovered by passing its samples through a LPF
Ideal Interpolation
Ideal Interpolation
Ideal Interpolation
 Aliasing
Aliasing occurs when a signal During the sampling process, the
above half the sample rate is signal frequencies are added and
allowed / created into the output subtracted from the sampling
of the sampled signal. frequency. In other words, upper
and lower side bands are
produced.
Aliasing causes the different
signals to become
indistinguishable. The sum and difference products
are repeated after every fs and
around fs.

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Aliasing

Bernard Sklar, Digital Communications- Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd Edition.

Aliasing

Bernard Sklar, Digital Communications- Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd Edition.

COMSATS PCS

Aliasing
COMSATS PCS

Aliasing
Aliasing
Aliasing
A Solution: The Antialiasing Filter
 Some Applications of Sampling
Theorem
Sampling theorem is very important in signal analysis, processing and
transmission because it allows to replace a continuous time signal by a
discrete sequence of numbers. This leads into the area of digital filtering.
In communication, the transmission of continuous-time message reduces to
the transmission of a sequence of numbers. This opens the doors to many
new techniques of communicating continuous-time signals by pulse trains.
The continuous-time signal g(t) is sampled, and sampled values are used to
modify certain parameters of a periodic pulse train.
 Some Applications of
Sampling Theorem

The sampled value can be used to vary amplitude, width or position of

the pulse in proportion to the sample values of the signal g(t).
Accordingly we get

Value of
g(t) the sample Pulse
Sampling
Modulation
Pulse Modulation
The process transmitting the Types of pulse modulation include
information using pulses is known as ◦ Pulse Amplitude Modulation
pulse modulation. (PAM).
◦ Pulse Width Modulation (PWM).
◦ Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).
In pulse modulation, a parameter
among amplitude, width and position
of the pulse is varied in accordance
with the input sampled signal value. All of these techniques encode the
sampled signal values by varying a
parameter of the pulses.
Depending upon the type of
parameter varied to carry information,
the pulse modulation is divided into
further sub groups.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
(PAM)
In Pulse Amplitude Modulation Limiting the pulse time to certain
(PAM) the successive sample fraction of time can help the
values of the analog signal are transmission of multiple PAM
used to effect the amplitudes of pulse during a certain time slot.
corresponding sequence of pulses
having a constant duration
occurring at sampling rate. The idea of multiple transmission
within fixed time slot is know as
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
The pulses may occupy the entire
time between the samples but
practically the duration of pulses is
usually limited to a fraction of time
between the successive samples.

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation
(PAM)
Used in
01. Telephone Modems
02. Ethernet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PAM_neutral.svg
Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM)
Also known as Pulse Duration The sample value and pulse width
Modulation (PDM). are directly proportional to each
other.

In Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

the successive samples are The pulse duration can be changed
represented by pulses having relative to the
constant amplitude but variable ◦ Fixed Leading Edge.
time duration
◦ Fixed Trailing Edge
◦ Fixed Pulse Center.
The time duration or width of the
pulse is varied according to the
sampled value.

http://www2.l-3com.com/tw/telemetry_tutorial/images/H_Modulation.gif
 Pulse Position Modulation
(PPM)
In Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) ,
the successive sample values are The variation in the position of the
represented by the pulses having pulse is done according to the
constant amplitude and constant sample values.
duration.

The position or occurrence of these

pulses is varied relative to its nominal
time of occurrence.

Used in optical communication.

http://www2.l-3com.com/tw/telemetry_tutorial/images/H_Modulation.gif
Pulse Modulated Signals
 Some Applications of Sampling Theorem
Pulse modulation permits simultaneous transmission of several
signals on a time-sharing basis: Time Division Multiplexing. Because
a pulse modulated signal occupies only a part of the channel time,
therefore several pulse modulated signals can be transmitted on
the same channel by interweaving.
Similarly several baseband signals can be transmitted
simultaneously by frequency division multiplexing where spectrum
of each message is shifted to a specific band not occupied by any
other signal.
 References
[1] Bernard Sklar, Digital Communications- Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd
Edition.
[2] http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/jan06/articles/qa0106_2.htm