CHAPTER 3

SHORT-CUTS TO DIFFERENTIATION
 Section 3.1

Powers and Polynomials

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Derivative of a Constant Times a Function

Figure 3.1 A function and its multiples:

Derivative of multiple is multiple of derivative

Theorem 3.1: Derivative of a Constant Multiple

If f is differentiable and c is a constant
d
 c f ( x )  c f ' ( x)
dx

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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Theorem 3.2:
Derivative of Sum and Difference
If f and g are differentiable, then
d d d
 f ( x)  g ( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)
dx dx dx

Proof using the definition of the derivative:

d
 f ( x)  g ( x)  lim  f ( x  h)  g ( x  h )   f ( x )  g ( x ) 
dx h 0 h
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) g ( x  h)  g ( x )
 lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h
 f ' ( x)  g ' ( x)
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 The Power Rule d n
For any constant real number n, x  n x n 1
dx
Example 1
Use the power rule to differentiate (a) 1/x3 , (b) x1/2 , (c) 1 / 3 x

Solution
(a) For n = − 3:
d  1  d 3
 3
dx  x  dx
 
x  3 x 31 4 3
 3x   4
x

(b) For n = 1/2:

dx
 x  x
d 1/ 2 1  1/ 2  1 1 1/ 2
2
 x
2

1
2 x

(c) For n = − 1/3:

d  1  d 1/ 3
3 
dx  x  dx
x  x
3

1 1/ 31 1 4 / 3
 x
3
1
  4/3
3x

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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Example 6
If the position of a body, in meters, is given as a function of
time t, in seconds, by
s = − 4.9t2 + 5t + 6,
find the velocity and acceleration of the body at time t.

Solution
The velocity, v, is the derivative of the position:
v = ds/dt = − 9.8t +5
and the acceleration, a, is the derivative of the velocity:
a = dv/dt = − 9.8
Note that v is in meters/second and a is in meters/second2.

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 Finding and Visualizing
Derivatives of Polynomials
Exercise 56
The graph of y(x) = x3 − 9x2 − 16x + 1 has a slope of 5 at two
points. Find the coordinates of the points.
Parabola
Solution 100

(-1,7)5 0 y’(x)
y’(x) = 3x2 − 18x − 16.
Setting 3x2 − 18x − 16 = 5, 4 2 2 4 6 8 10
x
50
3(x2 − 6x − 7) = 0 .
100
So x = 7 or -1.
150
At red points, Cubic 200
the slope of the y(x) 250 (7,-209)
blue graph, y(x), is 5.
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 Section 3.2
The Exponential
Function

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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 Derivatives of Exponential Functions
We start by calculating the Table 3.2 lists values of
derivative of g(x) = 2x, (2h- 1)/h as h → 0.
which is given by
h (2h- 1)/h
g'(x)  lim
 2 xh
 2x 
-0.1 0.6697
h 0 h
 2 h  1  2 x
-0.01 0.6908
 lim -0.001 0.6929
h 0 h 0.001 0.6934

  lim
 2 h  1  x
  2 0.01 0.6956
 h0 h  0.1 0.7177

We might conclude that g’(x) ≈ (0.693) 2x .

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 Exploring the Derivative of ax
The derivative of 2x is proportional to 2x with
constant of proportionality 0.693. A similar
calculation shows that the
derivative of f(x) = ax is Table 3.3
a 
 a  1  x
1
h
a
 h lim
f'(x)   lim   a h
h0
2 0.693
 h 0 h  3 1.099
And the value of this limit 4 1.386
is explored in Table 3.3. 5 1.609
Is there a value of “a” 6 1.792
between 2 and 3, such 7 1.946
that this limit will be 1?
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 The Natural Number e

If lim
 a h
 1
 1 , then
Table 3.4
h 0 h
h (1+h)1/h

−0.001 2.719642
for small values of h,
(ah -1)/h ≈ 1 or −0.0001 2.718418
ah ≈ 1 + h , a ≈ (1 + h)1/h
We define the value of a that −0.00001 2.718295
makes our constant of
 
1/ h 0.00001 2.718268
e  lim 1  h
proportionality 1 as
h 0
. 0.0001 2.718146

0.001 2.716924
This limit is explored in
the table on the right. Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright
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 Formula for the Derivative of ax
Based on Table 3.4, the number e ≈ 2.718… and this
irrational number is the base of the natural logarithms.
Using this fact, a = eln a and

ln a h
a 1
h
e 1 e (ln a ) h  1
lim  lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h
Letting t  (ln a ) h, t  0 as h  0 and
e (ln a ) h  1 et  1
lim  lim (ln a )  1  ln a  ln a
h 0 h t  0 t

dx
 
d x
a  (ln a ) a and
x d x
dx
e  ex  
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Exercise 41
In 2009, the population of Mexico was 111 million and
growing 1.13% annually, while the population of the US was
307 million and growing 0.975% annually. If we measure
growth rates in people per year, which population was
growing faster in 2009?
Solution
Country Mexico United States
Population 111 (1.0113)t 307 (1.00975)t
Function
Population Rate of 111 ln(1.0113) 307 ln(1.00975)
Change (1.0113)t (1.00975)t
Rate of Growth in 1.24727 2.97875
2009 (t = 0) million/year million/year

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 Section 3.3
The Product and
Quotient Rules

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

2013 by John Wiley & Sons, All Rights Reserved
 Difference of a Product
f(x + h)g(x + h) − f(x)g(x)
= (Area of whole rectangle) − (Unshaded area)
= Area of the three shaded rectangles
= Δ f ・ g(x) + f(x) ・ Δ g + Δ f ・ Δ g.

Figure 3.13: Illustration for the product rule (with Δf, Δg positive)

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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Theorem 3.3: The Product Rule
If u = f(x) and v = g(x) are differentiable, then
(f g)′ = f′ g + f g′.
The product rule can also be written
d du dv
(uv)  v  u 
dx dx dx
In words:
The derivative of a product is the derivative of the
first times the second plus the first times the
derivative of the second.

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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Exercise 6
Find the derivative of y = (t2 + 3) et
Solution
dy/dt = (2t) et + (t2 + 3) et = (t2 + 2t +3) et

Exercise 54
Let f(3) = 6, g(3) = 12, f′(3) = 1/2 , and g′(3) = 4/3 .
Evaluate the following when x = 3.
(f(x)g(x))′ − (g(x) − 4f′(x))
Solution
At x = 3, (fg)’= f’(3)g(3) + f(3)g’(3) = (1/2)(12)+6(4/3) = 6+8 =14
So at x = 3, (f(x)g(x))′ − (g(x) − 4f′(x)) = 14 – (12-4·(1/2))
= 14 – 10 = 4

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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Theorem 3.4: The Quotient Rule
If u = f(x) and v = g(x) are differentiable, then
(f /g)′ = (f′ g - f g′)/g2

du dv
or equivalently, v  u 
d  u  dx dx
 
dx  v  v2
In words:
The derivative of a quotient is the derivative of the
numerator times the denominator minus the numerator
times the derivative of the denominator, all over the
denominator squared.

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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Example 2a
Differentiate 5x2 /(x3 + 1)
Solution

d  5x 2

 d
 5 x 
2 
 ( x 3
1 )  5 x 2 d
 x 3
 1

  
    dx   dx 
dx  x 3  1  x 1
3

2

 10 x   x  1   5 x   3 x 
3 2 2

 x  1 3 2

10 x 4  10 x  15 x 4

x 3
1  2

 5 x 4  10 x

x 3
1  2

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 Section 3.4
The Chain Rule

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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 Intuition Behind the Chain Rule
Imagine we are moving straight upward in a hot air balloon. Let y be our
distance from the ground. The temperature, H, is changing as a function of
altitude, so H = f(y). How does our temperature change with time?
Since temperature is a function of height, H = f(y), and height is a function of
time, y = g(t), we can think of temperature as a composite function of time,
H = f(g(t)), with f as the outside function and g as the inside function. The
example suggests the following result, which turns out to be true:

Rate of change of Rate of change of Rate of change of

= ×
composite function outside function inside function

The Derivative of a Composition of Functions

Symbolically, for our H = f(g(t)):
f f g df df dg
  or  
t g t dt dg dt
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Theorem 3.5: The Chain Rule
If f and g are differentiable functions, then
d
f ( g ( x))  f ' ( g ( x))  g ' ( x ).
dx
In words:
The derivative of a composite function is the product of the
derivatives of the outside and inside functions. The derivative
of the outside function must be evaluated at the inside
function.

Example 2a
Find the derivative of (x2 + 1)100 .
Solution

dx

d 2 100
 2 99

x  1  100  x  1  2 x   200 x  x  1
2 99

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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Example 4
Differentiate
3 x 2
1 e
Solution
The chain rule is needed four times:

d
dx
1 e 3 x 2



1 
e

 3 x 2
 


1
 2

  2x

 2 3 x 
2
3 x
 2 1 e 
3 x 2
xe

3 x 2
2 3 x 2
1 e

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 Section 3.5
The Trigonometric
Functions

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 The Sine Function and Its Derivative
Graphical Perspective

Figure 3.22: The sine function

First we might ask where the derivative is zero.

Then ask where the derivative is positive and where it is negative.
In exploring these answers, we get something like the following graph.

Figure 3.23: Derivative of f(x) = sin x

The graph of the derivative in Figure 3.23 looks suspiciously like the graph
of the cosine function. This might lead us to conjecture, quite correctly,
that the derivative of the sine is the cosine.
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 The Cosine Function and Its Derivative
Graphical Perspective
Example 2
Starting with the graph of the cosine function, sketch a graph of its derivative.
Solution
Looking at the graph of g(x) = cos x its derivative is 0 at x = 0, ±π, ± 2π, …
It’s derivative (slope) is positive for (- π,0), (π, 2π), (3π, 4π), …
It’s derivative (slope) is negative for (- 2π, π), (0, π), (2π, 3π), …

Figure 3.24: g(x) = cos x and its derivative, g′(x)

The derivative of the cosine in Figure 3.24(b) looks exactly like the graph of sine,
except reflected across the x-axis.
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Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright
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Examples

Solution

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 Derivative of the Tangent Function
Since tan x = sin x/cos x, we differentiate tan x using the quotient rule.
Writing (sin x)′ for d(sin x)/dx, we have:
d d  sin x   sin x  '  cos x    sin x   cos x  '
tan x   
dx dx  cos x  cos 2 x


 cos x   cos x    sin x    sin x  cos 2 x  sin 2 x

2
cos x cos 2 x
1
 2
 sec 2
x
cos x

For x in radians, d 1
tan x  2
 sec 2
x
dx cos x

Exercise 30 Find the derivative of g(z) = tan ez .

Solution g’(z) = ez/(cos2 ez)

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 Section 3.6
The Chain Rule
and Inverse
Functions

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 Derivative of ln x
We use the chain rule to differentiate an identity involving
ln x. Since eln x = x, on the one hand we have
d ln x d
e  x  1.
dx dx
However, we can also use the chain rule to get
d ln x ln x d d
e e ln x  x ln x.
dx dx dx
Equating these to one another, we have our desired result.
d 1
ln x 
dx x

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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 Derivative of ax Revisited
In Section 3.2, we saw that the derivative of ax is
proportional to ax. Now we see another way of calculating
the constant of proportionality. We use the identity
ln(ax) = x ln a.
Differentiating both sides, using the chain rule, and
remembering that ln a is a constant, we obtain:
d 1 d x
ln a x  x a  ln a
dx a dx
So we have the result from Section 3.2.
d x
a   ln a  a x
dx

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
To find d/dx (arctan x) we use the identity tan(arctan x) = x.
Differentiating both sides and using the chain rule gives
d 1 d
 tan  arctan x    2  arctan x   1
dx cos  arctan x  dx
d
So  arctan x   cos 2  arctan x 
dx
Using the identity 1 + tan2θ = 1/cos2θ, and replacing θ by
arctan x, 1 1
cos  arctan x  
2

1  tan  arctan x  1  x 2
2

Thus we have
d 1
 arctan x  
dx 1 x2

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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 Derivative of the Arcsine and Examples
By a similar argument, we obtain the result:
d 1
arcsin x 
dx 1 x2

Example 2
Differentiate (a) arctan(t2) (b) arcsin(tan θ).
Solution
Use the chain rule:
(a) d
 1
arctan t 
2 d 2 2t
 t 
dt  
1 t 2 2 dt 1 t 4

(b) d 1 d 1 1
 arcsin  tan      tan   
d 1  tan 2  d 1  tan 2  cos 
2

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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 Derivative of a General Inverse Function
In general, if a function f has a differentiable inverse, f−1, we find
its derivative by differentiating f(f−1(x)) = x by the chain rule,
yielding the following result:
d
dx
 f 1 ( x)  
1
f '  f 1 ( x) 

Exercise 65 x f(x) f′(x)

Use the table and the fact that f(x) is 3 1 7
invertible and differentiable everywhere 6 2 10
to find (f−1)′(3). 9 3 5

Solution
Begin by observing that f−1(3)=9, since f(9) = 3
Then (f−1)′(3) = 1/f’(9) = 1/5

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 Section 3.7
Implicit Functions

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 What Is an Implicit Function?
In earlier chapters, most functions were written in the form y = f(x); here y is
said to be an explicit function of x. An equation such as
x2 + y 2 = 4
is said to give y as an implicit function of x. Its graph is the circle below. Since
there are x-values which correspond to two y-values, y is not a function of x
on the whole circle.

Figure 3.35: Graph of x2 + y2 = 4

Note that y is a function of x on the top half, and y is a different function
of x on the bottom half.
Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright
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 Differentiating Implicitly
Let us consider the circle as a whole. The equation does represent a
curve which has a tangent line at each point. The slope of this
tangent can be found by differentiating the equation of the circle
with respect to x:
d/dx (x2) + d/dx (y2) = d/dx (4).
If we think of y as a function of x and use the chain rule, we get
2x + 2y dy/dx = 0.
Solving gives dy/dx = − x/y.
The derivative here depends on both x and y (instead of just on x).
Differentiating the equation of the circle has given us the slope of
the curve at all points except (2, 0) and (−2, 0), where the tangent is
vertical. In general, this process of implicit differentiation leads to a
derivative whenever the expression for the derivative does not have
a zero in the denominator.

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Example 2
Find all points where the tangent line to
The figure below verifies
y3 − x y = −6 is either horizontal or vertical. graphically what was
Solution determined analytically.
Differentiating implicitly, 3y2·dy/dx–y–x·dy/dx=0
So dy/dx = y/(3y2 − x).
y
The tangent is horizontal when the numerator 8 y3 − x y = −6
of dy/dx equals 0, so y = 0. Since we also must
satisfy y3 − x y = −6, we get 0=-6, which is 6

impossible. We conclude that there are no

4
points on the curve where the tangent line is
horizontal.
·
2
The tangent is vertical when the denominator of (6.240,1.442)
dy/dx is 0, giving 3y2−x = 0. Thus, x = 3y2 at any 10 20 30 40 50
x
point with a vertical tangent line. Again, we
must also satisfy y3 − x y = −6, so y3=3. Solving
for x, with this value of y, we conclude there is a
vertical tangent at the point (6.240,1.442).

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Section 3.8
Hyperbolic
Functions

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 Hyperbolic Functions
e x  e x e x  e x
cosh x  sinh x 
2 2

Graphs of Hyperbolic Cosine and Sine

Figure 3.37: Graph of y = cosh x Figure 3.38: Graph of y = sinh x

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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 Properties of Hyperbolic Functions
cosh 0 = 1 sinh 0 = 0

cosh(−x) = cosh x sinh(−x) = −sinh x

Example 2
Describe and explain the behavior of cosh x as x → ∞ and
as x → −∞.
Solution
From Figure 3.37, it appears that as x → ∞, the graph of
cosh x resembles the graph of ½ ex. Similarly, as x → −∞,
the graph of cosh x resembles the graph of ½ e-x. This
behavior is explained by using the formula for cosh x and
the facts that e−x → 0 as x → ∞ and ex → 0 as x → −∞:

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

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 Identity Involving cosh x and sinh x
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
This identity shows us how the hyperbolic functions got
their name. Suppose (x, y) is a point in the plane and x =
cosh t and y = sinh t for some t. Then the point (x, y) lies
on the hyperbola x2 − y2 = 1.
Extending the analogy to the trigonometric functions, we
define the hyperbolic tangent.
y
The Hyperbolic Tangent 1 .0
y =tanh x
0 .5

sinh x e x  e  x
tanh x   x x x
cosh x e  e
4 2 2 4

 0 .5

 1 .0

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 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
We calculate the derivatives using the fact that d/dx (ex) =
ex. The results are again reminiscent of the trigonometric
functions.
d d
cosh x  sinh x sinh x  cosh x
dx dx

Example 3
Compute the derivative of tanh x.
Solution
Using the quotient rule gives
d sinh x  cosh x    sinh x 
2 2
d 1
tanh x   
dx dx cosh x  cosh x  2  cosh x  2

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 Section 3.9
Linear
Approximation
and the Derivative

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

2013 by John Wiley & Sons, All Rights Reserved
The Tangent Line Approximation
Suppose f is differentiable at a. Then, for values
of x near a, the tangent line approximation
to f(x) is
f(x) ≈ f(a) + f ′(a)(x − a).
The expression f(a)+ f ′(a)(x −a) is called the local
linearization of f near x = a. We are thinking of a
as fixed, so that f(a) and f ′(a) are constant.
The error, E(x), in the approximation is defined
by
E(x) = f(x) − f(a) − f ′(a)(x − a).
Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright
2013 by John Wiley & Sons, All Rights Reserved
Visualization of the Tangent Line Approximation

Figure 3.40: The tangent line approximation and its error

It can be shown that the tangent line approximation is the best linear
approximation to f near a.
Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright
2013 by John Wiley & Sons, All Rights Reserved
Example 1
What is the tangent line approximation for f(x) = sin x near x = 0?
Solution
The tangent line approximation of f near x = 0 is
f(x) ≈ f(0) + f ′(0)(x − 0).
If f(x) = sin x, then f ′(x) = cos x, so f(0) = sin 0 = 0 and f ′(0) = cos 0 = 1, and
the approximation is
sin x ≈ x.
This means that, near x = 0, the function f(x) = sin x is well approximated
by the function y = x. If we zoom in on the graphs of the functions sin x and
x near the origin, we won’t be able to tell them apart.

Figure 3.41: Tangent line

approximation to y = sin x

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

2013 by John Wiley & Sons, All Rights Reserved
 Estimating the Error in Linear Approximation
Theorem 3.6: Differentiability and Local Linearity
Suppose f is differentiable at x = a and E(x) is the error in
the tangent line approximation, that is:
E(x) = f(x) − f(a) − f ′(a)(x − a).
Then E ( x)
lim 0
xa xa
Proof
Using the definition of E(x), we have
E ( x) f ( x)  f (a )  f ' (a )( x  a ) f ( x)  f (a)
   f ' (a)
xa xa xa
Taking the limit as x → a and using the definition of the derivative, we
see that E ( x)  f ( x)  f (a ) 
lim  lim   f ' (a)   f ' (a)  f ' (a)  0
xa x  a xa  xa 
f ' ' (a)
An error estimate that will be developed later is E ( x)   x  a 2
2

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

2013 by John Wiley & Sons, All Rights Reserved
Example 3
Let E(x) be the error in the tangent line approximation to f(x) = x3 − 5x + 3
for x near 2.
(a) What does a table of values for E(x)/(x − 2) suggest about the limit of
this ratio as x→2?
(b) Make another table to see that E(x) ≈ k(x − 2) 2. Estimate the value of
k. Check that a possible value is k = f ′′(2)/2.
Solution
Since f(x) = x3 − 5x + 3 , we have f ′(x) = 3x2 − 5, and f′′(x) = 6x. Thus, f(2) =
1 and f ′(2) = 3·22 − 5 = 7, so the tangent line approximation for x near 2 is
f(x) ≈ f(2) + f ′(2)(x − 2) ≈ 1 + 7(x − 2).
E(x) = True value − Approximation = (x3 − 5x + 3) − (1 + 7(x − 2)).
x E(x)/(x − 2) E(x)/(x − 2)2 These values suggest that
2.1 0.61 6.1 E(x)/(x − 2) → 0 as x → 2 and
2.01 0.0601 6.01 E(x)/(x − 2)2 → 6 as x → 2.
2.001 0.006001 6.001 So E(x) ≈ 6(x − 2) 2
2.0001 0.0006 6.0001 Also note that f ′′(2)/2 = 12/2=6
Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright
2013 by John Wiley & Sons, All Rights Reserved
 Section 3.10
Theorems About
Differentiable
Functions

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

2013 by John Wiley & Sons, All Rights Reserved
 A Relationship Between Local and Global:
The Mean Value Theorem
Theorem 3.7: The Mean Value Theorem
If f is continuous on a ≤ x ≤ b and differentiable on a < x < b, then there
exists a number c, with a < c < b, such that
f ′(c) = (f(b) − f(a))/(b − a).
In other words, f(b) − f(a) = f ′(c)(b − a).
To understand this theorem geometrically, look at Figure 3.44. Join the
points on the curve where x = a and x = b with a secant line and observe
that the slope of secant line = (f(b) − f(a))/(b − a).

There appears to be at least

one point between a and b
where the slope of the
tangent line to the curve is
precisely the same as the
slope of the secant line.
Figure 3.44

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

2013 by John Wiley & Sons, All Rights Reserved
Theorem 3.8: The Increasing Function Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous on a ≤ x ≤ b and differentiable on a < x < b.
• If f ′(x) > 0 on a < x < b, then f is increasing on a ≤ x ≤ b.
• If f ′(x) ≥ 0 on a < x < b, then f is nondecreasing on a ≤ x ≤ b.

Theorem 3.9: The Constant Function Theorem

Suppose that f is continuous on a ≤ x ≤ b and differentiable on a < x < b.
If f ′(x) = 0 on a < x < b, then f is constant on a ≤ x ≤ b.

Theorem 3.10: The Racetrack Principle

Suppose that g and h are continuous on a ≤ x ≤ b and differentiable on
a < x < b, and that g′(x) ≤ h′(x) for a < x < b.
• If g(a) = h(a), then g(x) ≤ h(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b.
• If g(b) = h(b), then g(x) ≥ h(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b.

Calculus, 6th edition, Hughes-Hallett et. al., Copyright

2013 by John Wiley & Sons, All Rights Reserved