FUNGI-SOMATIC STRUCTURE &

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Fundamentals of Plant Pathology – IInd Semester

Introduction to Plant Pathogens – IXth semester

DR. H. C. LAL
ASSTT. PROFESSOR (PLANT PATHOLOGY)
BIRSA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, RANCHI
FUNGI- SOMATIC STRUCTURES AND REPRODUCTION
• General characters of fungi
1. All are eukaryotic - Possess membrane-bound nuclei
(containing chromosomes) and a range of membrane-bound
cytoplasmic organelles (e.g. mitochondria, vacuoles,
endoplasmic reticulum).
• 2. Most are filamentous - Composed of individual microscopic
filaments called hyphae, which exhibit apical growth and
which branch to form a network of hyphae called a mycelium.
• 3. Some are unicellular - e.g. yeasts.
• 4. Protoplasm of a hypha or cell is surrounded by a rigid wall -
Composed primarily of chitin and glucans, although the walls
of some species may contain cellulose.
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS-CONTD….
5. Many reproduce both sexually and asexually - Both sexual and asexual
reproduction often result in the production of spores.
6. Their nuclei are typically haploid and hyphal compartments are often
multinucleate – Although the oomycota and some yeast possess diploid
nuclei.
7. All are achlorophyllous - They lack chlorophyll pigments and are
incapable of photosynthesis.
8. All are chemoheterotrophic (chemo-organotrophic) - They utilise pre-
existing organic sources of carbon in their environment and the energy
from chemical reactions to synthesize the organic compounds they require
for growth and energy.
9. Possess characteristic range of storage compounds - e.g. trehalose,
glycogen, sugar alcohols and lipids.
10. May be free-living or may form intimate relationships with other
organisms i.e. may be freeliving, parasitic or mutualistic (symbiotic).
 THALLUS & THEIR TYPES
The body of the fungus is called as 'thallus'.
• Eucarpic thallus
• The thallus is differentiated into vegetative
part, which absorbs nutrients, and a
reproductive part, which forms reproductive
structure. Such thalli are called as eucarpic.
e.g. Pythium aphanidermatum.
HOLOCARPIC : THE THALLUS DOES NOT SHOW ANY
DIFFERENTIATION ON VEGETATIVE AND
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE. AFTER A PHASE OF
VEGETATIVE GROWTH, IT GETS CONVERTED INTO ONE
OR MORE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES.
SUCH THALLI ARE CALLED AS 'HOLOCARPIC' E.G.
YEAST, SYNCHYTRIUM ENDOBIOTICUM.
• Hyphae of septate fungi
are divided into cells by
crosswalls called septa
• Hyphae of aseptate fungi
lack cross walls
(coenocytic)
• Parasitic fungi have
modified hyphae called
haustoria, which
penetrate the host tissue
but remain outside cell
membrane
HYPHAE: HYPHA IS A TUBULAR, TRANSPARENT
FILAMENT, USUALLY BRANCHED, COMPOSED OF AN OUTER
CELL WALL AND A CAVITY (LUMEN) LINED OR FILLED WITH
PROTOPLASM INCLUDING CYTOPLASM. HYPHAE ARE
DIVIDED INTO COMPARTMENTS OR CELLS BY CROSS WALLS
CALLED SEPTA AND ARE GENERALLY CALLED AS SEPTATE
(WITH CROSS WALL) OR COENOCYTIC (ASEPTATE -WITHOUT
CROSS WALL). HYPHAE OF MOST OF THE FUNGI MEASURE 5-
10 ΜM ACROSS.
CROSS WALLS OF HYPHAE
Coenocytic
hyphae where the
nucleis of each cell
is embedded in the
cytoplasm without
a cell wall
Eg. Zygomycota,
Oomycota

Hyphae with cross walls

Eg. Basidiomycota,
Ascomycota
MYCELIUM (PL. MYCELIA): THE HYPHAL MASS OR NETWORK OF
HYPHAE CONSTITUTING THE BODY (THALLUS) OF THE FUNGUS IS
CALLED AS MYCELIUM. THE MYCELIUM OF PARASITIC FUNGI
GROWS ON THE SURFACE OF THE HOST AND SPREAD BETWEEN
THE CELLS AND IT IS CALLED INTERCELLULAR MYCELIUM. THE
MYCELIUM OF PARASITIC FUNGI, WHICH GROWS ON THE
SURFACE OF THE HOST AND PENETRATES INTO THE HOST CELLS
AND IS CALLED INTRACELLULAR MYCELIUM. IF THE MYCELIUM
IS INTERCELLULAR, FOOD IS ABSORBED THROUGH THE HOST
CELL WALLS OR MEMBRANE. IF THE MYCELIUM PENETRATES
INTO THE CELLS, THE HYPHAL WALLS COME INTO DIRECT
CONTACT WITH THE HOST PROTOPLASM. INTERCELLULAR
HYPHAE OF MANY FUNGI, ESPECIALLY OF OBLIGATE PARASITES
OF
PLANTS (FUNGI CAUSING DOWNY MILDEWS, POWDERY MILDEWS
AND RUSTS) OBTAIN NUTRIENTS THROUGH HAUSTORIA.
Monokaryotic mycelium (uninucleate):Mycelium contains single
nucleus that usually forms part of haplophase in the life cycle of fungi.
 DIKARYOTIC MYCELIUM (BINUCLEATE) : MYCELIUM
CONTAINS PAIR OF NUCLEI (DIKARYON), WHICH DENOTES
THE DIPLOPHASE IN THE LIFE CYCLE OF FUNGI.
• Homokaryotic mycelium :The mycelium contains genetically
identical nuclei.
• Heterokaryotic mycelium: The mycelium contains nuclei of different
genetic constituents.
• Multinucleate ; The fungal cell contains more than 2 nuclei.
• Septa : Transverse septa occur in the thallus of all filamentous fungi
to cut off reproductive cells from the rest of the hypha, to separate
off the damaged parts or to divide the hypha into regular or
irregular compartments or cells. There are two general types of
septa in fungi viz., primary and adventitious. The primary septa are
formed in association with nuclear division and are laid down
between daughter nuclei. The adventitious septa are formed
independently of nuclear division and are especially associated with
changes in the concentration of the protoplasm as it moves from one
part of the hypha to another.
DOLIPORE SEPTA, SEPTAL PORE CAPS OR PARENTHOSOMES
SEPTA VARY IN THEIR CONSTRUCTION SEPTA HAVE
BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE IN THE LIFECYCLE OF FUNGI.
SOME ARE SIMPLE WHEREAS OTHERS ARE COMPLEX. IN
SOME SEPTA, THE GROWTH CONTINUES UNTIL THE SEPTUM IS
A SOLID PLATE. IN OTHERS THE SEPTUM REMAINS
INCOMPLETE, LEAVING A PORE IN THE CENTRE THAT MAY
OFTEN BE PLUGGED OR OCCULTED.
SOME GROUPS OF BASIDIOMYCETES LIKE
AURICULARIACEAE, TREMELLACEAE, APHYLLOPHORALES,
AGARICALES ETC (EXCEPT USTILAGINALES AND
UREDINALES) HAVE MORE COMPLEX SEPTA. SURROUNDING
THE CENTRAL PORE IN THE SEPTUM IS A CURVED FLANGE OF
WALL MATERIAL, WHICH IS THICKENED TO FORM A BARREL-
SHAPED OR CYLINDRICAL STRUCTURE SURROUNDING THE
PORE. SEPTA OF THIS TYPE ARE TERMED DOLIPORE SEPTA (L.
DOLIUM = A LARGE JAR OR CASK I . E., BARREL). THESE SEPTA
ARE OFTEN OVERLAID BY PERFORATED CAP, WHICH IS AN
EXTENSION OF THE
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. THIS CAP IS KNOWN AS
PARENTHOSOME OR PORE CAP. DESPITE THESE APPARENT
BARRIERS, THERE IS A GOOD CYTOPLASMIC CONTINUITY
BETWEEN ADJACENT CELLS. THE SEPTAL PORE MAY VARY IN
WIDTH FROM 0.1 TO 0.2 ΜM. DOLIPORE SEPTA ARE FOUND IN
 FUNGAL CELL STRUCTURE
• Fungal cells are typically eukaryotic and have distinguished
characteristics than that of bacteria, and algae.
• The chief components of cell wall appears to be various types of
carbohydrate or their mixtures (upto 80-90%) such as cellulose,
pectose, callose etc., cellulose predominates in the cell wall of
mastigomycotina (lower fungi) while in higher fungi chitin is present.
The living protoplast of the fungal cell is enclosed in a cell membrane
called as plasma membrane or plasmalemma. Cytoplasm contains
organelles such as nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes,
vacuoles, vesicles, microbodies, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes and
microtubules.
• The fungal nucleus has nuclear envelope comprising of two typical unit
membrane and a central dense area known as nucleolus, which mainly
consist of RNA. In multinucleate hyphae, the nuclei may be
interconnected by the endoplasmic reticulum. Vacuoles present inside
the cell provide turgor needed for cell growth and maintenance of cell
shape. Beside the osmotic function, they also store reserve materials.
 SPECIALIZED SOMATIC STRUCTURES
•A rhizoid (Gr. rhiza = root +
oeides = like) is a short, root-like
filamentous outgrowth of the
thallus generally formed in tufts at
the base of small unicellular thalli .
Rhizoid serves as anchoring or
attachment organ to the substratum
and also as an organ of absorption
of nutrients from substratum.
Rhizoids are short, delicate
filaments that contain protoplasm
but no nuclei. Rhizoids are
common in lower fungi like
Chytridiomycetes, Oomycetes and
Zygomycetes.
APPRESSORIUM
APPRESSORIUM (PL. APPRESSORIUM; L. APPRIMERE = TO PRESS
AGAINST) IS A SIMPLE OR LOBED STRUCTURE OF HYPHAL OR GERM
TUBE AND A PRESSING ORGAN FROM WHICH A MINUTE INFECTION
PEG USUALLY GROW AND ENTER THE EPIDERMAL CELL OF THE
HOST. IT HELPS GERM TUBE OR HYPHA TO ATTACH TO THE
SURFACE OF THE HOST OR SUBSTRATES. THESE APPRESSORIA ARE
FORMED FROM GERM TUBES OF UREDINALES (RUST FUNGI),
ERYSIPHALES (POWDERY MILDEW FUNGI) AND OTHER FUNGI IN
THEIR PARASITIC OR SAPROPHYTIC STAGES.
 HAUSTORIA
Haustoria (sing. haustorium; L.
haustor = drinker) are special hyphal
structures or outgrowths of somatic
hyphae sent into the cell to absorb
nutrients. The hyphal branch said to
function as haustorium becomes
extremely thin and pointed while
piercing the host cell wall and
expands in the cell cavity to form a
wider, simple or branched
haustorium. Haustoria may be
knob-like or balloon – like in shape,
elongated or branched like a
miniature root system.
 AGGREGATIONS OF HYPHAE AND TISSUES

a. Mycelial strand: Mycelial strands

are aggregates of parallel or interwoven
undifferentiated hyphae, which adhere
closely and are frequently anastomosed or
cemented together. They are relatively
loose (e.g. Sclerotium rolfsii growth on
culture medium) compared to rhizomorph.
Mycelial strand formation is quite
common in Basidiomycetes, Ascomycetes
and Deuteromycetes
b. Rhizomorph : Rhizomorph is Fungal tissues During certain stages of
the aggregation of highly the life cycle of most fungi, the
differentiated hyphae with a mycelium becomes organized into
well defined apical meristem, a loosely or compactly woven tissues.
central core of larger, thin These organized fungal tissues are called
walled, cells which are often plectenchyma .There are two types of
darkly pigmented. These root- plectenchyma viz., prosenchyma and
like aggregation is found in the pseudoparenchyma. When the tissue is
honey fungus or honey agaric loosely woven and the hyphae lie
Armillaria mellea. They grow parallel to one another it is called
faster than the mycelial strands. prosenchyma. These tissues have
The growing tip of rhizomorph distinguishable and typical elongated
resembles that of a root tip. The cells. Pseudoparenchyma consists of
fungus may spread underground closely packed, more or less isodiametric
from one root system to another or oval cells resembling the parenchyma
by means of rhizomorph. cells of vascular plants. In this type of
tissues hyphae lose their individuality
and are not distinguishable.
Rhizomorphs Pseudoparenchyma
Prosenchyma
 STROMA AND SCLEROTIUM
i. Stroma (pl. stromata; Gr. • ii. Sclerotium (pl. sclerotia; Gr.
stroma = mattress) A stroma is a skeleros = hard) A sclerotium is a
compact, somatic tructure or resting body formed by
hyphal aggregation similar to a aggregation of somatic hyphae into
mattress or a cushion, on which
dense, rounded, flattened,
or in which fructifications of
elongated or horn-shaped dark
fungi are usually formed. They
may be of various shapes and masses. They are thick-walled
sizes. Hyphal masses like resting structures, which contain
acervuli, sporodochia, pionnotes food reserves. Sclerotia are hard
etc. are the fertile stromata, structures resistant to
which bear sporophores unfavourable physical and
producing spores. chemical conditions. They may
remain dormant for longer periods
of time, sometimes for several
years and germinate on the return
Stroma

Sclerotia
MYCORRHIZAE
MYCORRHIZA (PL. MYCORRHIZAE; GR. MYKES =
MUSHROOM + RHIZA = ROOT) IS THE SYMBIOTIC
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN HIGHER PLANT ROOTS
AND FUNGAL MYCELIA. MANY PLANTS IN
NATURE HAVE MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS.
MYCORRHIZAL PLANTS INCREASE THE SURFACE
AREA OF THE ROOT SYSTEM FOR BETTER
ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS FROM SOIL
ESPECIALLY WHEN THE SOILS ARE DEFICIENT
IN PHOSPHORUS. THE NATURE OF ASSOCIATION
IS BELIEVED TO BE SYMBIOTIC (MUTUALISM),
NON-PATHOGENIC OR
WEAKLY PATHOGENIC. THERE ARE THREE
TYPES OF MYCORRHIZAL FUNGAL
ASSOCIATIONS WITH PLANT ROOTS. THEY ARE
ECTOTROPHIC OR SHEATHING OR
ECTOMYCORRHIZA,. ENDOTROPHIC OR
ENDOMYCORRHIZA AND ECTENDOTROPHIC
MYCORRHIZA.
 REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI
• Reproduction is the formation of new individuals having all the
characteristics typical of a species. The fungi reproduce by
means of asexual and sexual or parasexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is sometimes called somatic or vegetative
and it does not involve union of nuclei, sex cells or sex organs.
The union of two nuclei characterizes sexual reproduction.
• ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• In fungi, asexual reproduction is more important for the
propagation of species. Asexual reproduction does not involve
union of sex organs (gametangia) or sex cells (gametes) or
nuclei. In fungi the following are the common methods of
asexual reproduction.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• 1. Fragmentation of mycelium : Mycelial fragments from any
part of the thallus may grow into new individuals when suitable
conditions are provided.
• 2. Fission of unicellular thalli ; It is also known as transverse
cell division. Reproduction by the method of fission is are in
fungi. Fission is simple splitting of cells into two daughter cells
by constriction and the formation of a cell wall. It is observed in
Schizosaccharomyces spp
• 3.Budding is the production of a small outgrowth (bud) from a
parent cell. As the bud is formed, the nucleus of the parent cell
divides and one daughter nucleus migrates into the bud. The bud
increases in size, while still attached to the parent cell and
eventually breaks off and forms a new individual. It is common
in yeasts.(Saccharomyces sp. ).
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN
FUNGI
 4. PRODUCTION OF ASEXUAL SPORES
• Reproduction by the production of spores is very common in many fungi.
• SPORES :The term 'spore'(Gr. spora=seed, spore) is applied to any small
propagative, reproductive or survival unit, which separates from a hypha
or sporogenous cell and can grow independently into a new individual.
Spores may be unicellular or multicellular. Multicellular spores are mostly
with transverse septa and in some genera like Alternaria a spore will have
both transverse and longitudinal septa.
• They may be spherical, oval or ovate, obovate, pyriform, obpyriform,
ellipsoid, cylindrical, oblong, allantoid, filiform or selecoid, falcate or
fusion. The spores may be with or without simple or branched appendages.
• The spores may be motile or nonmotile. If the spores are motile they are
called planospores (Gr. Planets = wanderer) and non-motile spores are
called aplanospores. Spores may be thin or thick-walled, hyaline or
coloured, smooth or with ornamented walls.
 ASEXUAL SPORES
• The spores produced asexual means are:
• a. Sporangiospores
• b. Conidia
• c. Chlamydospores
• Sporangiospores : Sporangiospores may be motile (planospores) or
nonmotile spores (aplanospores). In simpler fungi sporangiospores are
usually motile and are called zoospores. sporangiospores are formed in
globose or sac-like structure called sporangium (pl. sporangia; Gr. Spora
= seed, spore + angeion = vessel). In the zygomycetes and especially in the
Mucorales, the non-motile asexual spores called aplanospores are
contained in globose sporangia surrounding a central core or columella.
Sporangia are also known in which there is no columella, or where the
spores (aplanospores) are arranged in a row inside a cylindrical sac
termed a Merosporangium (e.g. Syncephalastrum spp. Mucorales).
• Zoospore (Gr. Zoon = animal + spora = seed, spore) It is an asexually
produced spore, which is motile by means of flagellum or flagella.
Zoospore is naked and its covering is only a hyaloplasm membrane.
Normally, zoospores are uninucleate and haploid. Zoospores may be
spherical, oval, pyriform, obpyriform, elongate or reniform in shape.
The zoospores are provided with one or two flagella (sing. flagellum,
L. flagellum=whip) for its movement in the surrounding film of water.
Flagellum is a hair-or tinsel like structure that serves to propel a
motile cell.
• They are whiplash and tinsel types. The whiplash flagellum has a long
rigid base composed of all the eleven fibrils and a short flexible end
formed of the two central fibrils only. The tinsel flagellum has a rachis,
which is covered on all sides along its centre length with short fibrils.
ZOOSPORES & SPORANGIOSPORES
 B. CONIDIOSPORES
• Conidiospores or conidia (sing. Conidium) are asexual
reproductive structures borne on special spore bearing hyphae
conidiophores. They are found in many different groups of fungi,
but especially in ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina and
Deuteromycotina.
• Conidia may be borne singly or in chains or in cluster. They vary
from unicellular (e.g. Colletotrichum), bicellular, microconidia of
Fusarium spp. and multicellular (Pestalotiopsis, Cercospora).
• One-celled spores are called amerospores, two celled spores are
didymospores and multicellular spores are called phragmospores.
• They may be globose, elliptical, ovoid, cylindrical, branched or
spirally coiled or star-shaped (staurospores). The colour of the
conidia may be hyaline (hyalospore) or coloured (phaeospore)
pink, green, or dark.
CONIDIA
 CHLAMYDOSPORES
• Chlamydospore (Gr. Chlamys = mantle + spora =
seed, spore) is a thick-walled thallic conidium that
generally function as a resting spore. Terminal or
intercalary segments or mycelium may become
packed with food reserves and develop thick walls.
• They are the important organs of asexual survival
in soil fungi. When chlamydospores are found in
between fungal cells they are called 'intercalary
chlamydospores'. Chlamydospores produced at the
apex of the hypha are called 'apical or terminal
chlamydospores'.
CHLAMYDOSPORES & OIDIA
 Thank you
for patient hearing