Chapter 2

Logic Gates
 Gates
 A gate is a device that performs a basic
operation on electrical signals
 Gates are combined into circuits to perform
more complicated tasks
NOT Gate
 A NOT gate accepts one input value
and produces one output value

input output

 Sometimes called an inverter because it inverts the

input
AND Gate
 An AND gate accepts two input signals

A B
OR Gate
 If both inputs are 0, output is 0
 Otherwise, output is 1
XOR Gate
An XOR gate produces 0 if its inputs are match, and a 1
otherwise
NAND Gates
 The NAND gates are essentially the opposite of
the AND gates.
NOR GATES
 The NOR gates are essentially the
opposite of the OR gates.
 n-input Gates
 Because + and * are binary operations, they can be
cascaded together to OR or AND multiple inputs.

A A
B A+B+C B ABC
C

A A
B A+B+C B ABC
C C
NAND and NOR as Universal Logic Gates
 Any logic circuit can
be built using only
NAND gates, or only
NOR gates. They are
the only logic gate
needed.

 Here are the NAND

equivalents:
NAND and NOR as Universal Logic Gates (cont)

 Here are the NOR

equivalents:
 NAND and NOR
can be used to
reduce the number
of required gates
in a circuit.
Digital systems
 Two main types 1

 Combinational
7
3

• Outputs dependent only on

current input
 Sequential

• Outputs dependent on both

past and present inputs
 Digital Electronics
 Two general categories
 In a combinational circuit, the input values explicitly
determine the output
 In a sequential circuit, the output is a function of the input
values as well as the existing state of the circuit
 As with gates, we can describe the operations of entire
circuits using three notations
 Boolean expressions
 logic diagrams
 truth tables
 Logic Notation
 Boolean algebra:
 expressions in this algebraic notation are an elegant and
powerful way to demonstrate the activity of electrical circuits
 Logic diagram:
 a graphical representation of a circuit
 Each type of gate is represented by a specific symbol
 Truth table:
 defines the function of a gate by listing all possible input
combinations that the gate could encounter, and the
corresponding output
 Combinational Circuits
 Gates are combined into circuits by using the output of one
gate as the input for another

(AB + AC)
 Truth Table

 Since this circuit has 3 inputs, eight rows are required to describe all
possible input combinations: (23=8)
 This same circuit using Boolean algebra:
(AB + AC)
 Combinational Logic
 Consider the following Boolean expression: A(B + C)

• Now compare the final result column in this truth

table to the truth table for the previous example
• They are identical
Circuit Equivalence
 We have therefore just demonstrated circuit
equivalence
 That is, both circuits produce the exact same output for each
input value combination
 Boolean algebra allows us to apply provable
mathematical principles to help us design logical
circuits
 Exercise 1
 Find the output of the following circuit

x x+y
y
(x+y)y

 Answer: (x+y)y _
 Exercise 2
 Find the output of the following circuit

x
x xy xy
y
y
___
_ _
 Answer: xy
 Exercise 3
 Write the circuits for the following Boolean
algebraic expressions
__
a) x+y

x
x x+y

y
 Exercise 4
 Sketch the circuits for the following Boolean
algebraic
_____
expressions
b) (x+y)x

x x+y
x+y (x+y)x
y
 Exercise 5
Implement the following truth table.
A B C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

3-26
 Exercise 5
 Writing xor using and/or/not
____
x  y  (x + y)(xy) x
1
y
1
xy
0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

x x+y (x+y)(xy)
y
xy xy
 Exercise 6
Complete the truth A B A.B A.B A+B P
table for this circuit
and name the
0 0
equivalent primitive
function/gate.
0 1

1 0

1 1
 Exercise 7
Can implement ANY truth table with AND, OR,
NOT.
A B C D
0 0 0 0 1. AND combinations
that yield a "1" in the
0 0 1 0
truth table.
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 2. OR the results
1 0 1 1 of the AND gates.

1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
 Example
 Consider a buzzer which sounds when :
• The lights are on and
• The door is open and A
Alarm
• No key is in the ignition B system P
Active
C

Variable Value Situation

A 1 Lights are on
0 Lights are off
B 1 Door is open
0 Door is closed
C 1 Key is in ignition
0 Key is out of ignition
P 1 Buzzer is on
0 Buzzer is off
 Example
 Truth Table
A B C P
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
 A Truth Table can be
0 1 0 0
used to show the
0 1 1 0
relationships between : 1 0 0 0
• the 3 inputs and 1 0 1 0
• the single output 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

lights A
 Implementation as a
circuit using logic gates door B P buzzer
keys C
How to add binary numbers
 Consider adding two 1-bit binary numbers x and y
 0+0 = 0

 0+1 = 1

 1+0 = 1 x y Carry Sum

 1+1 = 10 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
 Carry is x AND y
1 1 1 0
 Sum is x XOR y
 The circuit to compute this is called a half-adder
The half-adder
 Sum = x XOR y
 Carry = x AND y

x
y Sum
Carry
Definition: Minterm
 Product term in which all variables appear once
(complemented or not)
 For n variables, there will be 2n minterms

34
Maxterms
 Sum term in which all variables appear once
(complemented or not)

35
Minterm related to Maxterm
 Minterm and maxterm with same subscripts are
complements

 Example
m j  Mj

m3  XYZ  X  Y  Z  M 3

36
Sum of Product (SOP)
 OR all of the minterms of truth table row with a
1

37
Product of Maxterms
 Recall that maxterm is true except for its own
case
 So M1 is only false for 001

38
Product of Sum (POS)
 Can express F as AND of all rows that should
evaluate to 0

F  M1  M 3  M 4  M 6
or
F  ( X  Y  Z )( X  Y  Z )
( X  Y  Z )( X  Y  Z )

39
Canonical and Standard Forms
 We need to consider formal techniques for the
simplification of Boolean functions.
 Minterms and Maxterms
 Sum-of-Minterms and Product-of-Maxterms

 Product and Sum terms

 Sum-of-Products (SOP) and Product-of-Sums (POS)

Dec 8, 2021 40
Definitions

 Minterm: a product term in which all the variables

appear exactly once, either complemented or
uncomplemented
 Maxterm: a sum term in which all the variables
appear exactly once, either complemented or
uncomplemented

Dec 8, 2021 41
Truth Table notation for Minterms
and Maxterms
 Minterms and x y z Minterm Maxterm
Maxterms are easy 0 0 0 x’y’z’ = m0 x+y+z = M0
to denote using a 0 0 1 x’y’z = m1 x+y+z’ = M1
truth table. 0 1 0 x’yz’ = m2 x+y’+z = M2
 Example: 0 1 1 x’yz = m3 x+y’+z’= M3
Assume 3 variables1 0 0 xy’z’ = m4 x’+y+z = M4
x,y,z 1 0 1 xy’z = m5 x’+y+z’ = M5
(order is fixed) 1 1 0 xyz’ = m6 x’+y’+z = M6
1 1 1 xyz = m7 x’+y’+z’ = M7

Dec 8, 2021 Chapter 2-i: Combinational Logic Circuits (2.1-- 2.5) 42

Canonical Forms (Unique)

 Any Boolean function F( ) can be expressed as

a unique sum of minterms and a unique
product of maxterms (under a fixed variable
ordering).
 In other words, every function F() has two
canonical forms:
 Canonical Sum-Of-Products (sum of minterms)
 Canonical Product-Of-Sums (product of
maxterms)

Dec 8, 2021 Chapter 2-i: Combinational Logic Circuits (2.1-- 2.5) 43

Example

 Truth table for f1(a,b,c) at right

a b c f1
 The canonical sum-of-products form for f1
is 0 0 0 0
f1(a,b,c) = m1 + m2 + m4 + m6 0 0 1 1
= a’b’c + a’bc’ + ab’c’ + abc’
 The canonical product-of-sums form for f1
0 1 0 1
is 0 1 1 0
f1(a,b,c) = M0 • M3 • M5 • M7 1 0 0 1
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•
(a’+b+c’)•(a’+b’+c’). 1 0 1 0
 Observe that: mj = Mj’ 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Dec 8, 2021 Chapter 2-i: Combinational Logic Circuits (2.1-- 2.5) 44
Conversion Between Canonical Forms
 Example:
f1(a,b,c) = a’b’c + a’bc’ + ab’c’ + abc’
= m1 + m2 + m4 + m6
= ∑(1,2,4,6)
= ∏(0,3,5,7)
= (a+b+c)(a+b’+c’)(a’+b+c’)(a’+b’+c’)

Dec 8, 2021 45
Read
 Lab 1
 Quick read
 Just to see if it all makes sense

http://www.cs.unc.edu/~lastra/comp160/Labs/index.html

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C

A F

B
C

A G