Logic Programming

• About the course

– Tuesday: mostly theory
– Thursday: practical work [lab]

• Teaching material
– SWI Prolog interpreter
 SWI Prolog
• Freely available Prolog interpreter
• Works with
– Linux,
– Windows, or
– Mac OS
• There are many more Prolog
interpreters
• Not all are ISO compliant
 Lecture 1
• Theory
– Introduction to Prolog
– Facts, Rules and Queries
– Prolog Syntax

• Exercises
– Practical work
 Aim of this lecture
• Give some simple examples of Prolog
programs
• Discuss the three basic constructs in Prolog:
– Facts
– Rules
– Queries
• Introduce other concepts, such as
– the role of logic
– unification with the help of variables
• Begin the systematic study of Prolog by
defining terms, atoms, and variables
 Prolog
• "Programming with Logic"
• Declarative
• Very different from other (procedural)
programming languages
• Good for knowledge-rich tasks
 History of Prolog

first Prolog interpreter by

Colmerauer and Roussel

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2010

 History of Prolog

implementation of DEC10
compiler by Warren

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2010

 History of Prolog

Definite Clause Grammars

implementation by Pereira
and Warren

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2010

 History of Prolog

Prolog grows in popularity

especially in Europe and Japan

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2010

 History of Prolog

Prolog used to program

natural language
interface in
International Space
Station by NASA

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2010

 Basic idea of Prolog
• Describe the situation of interest
• Ask a question
• Prolog logically deduces new facts
about the situation we described
• Prolog gives us its deductions back as
answers
 Consequences
• Think declaratively, not procedurally
– Challenging
– Requires a different mindset
• High-level language
– Not as efficient as, say, C
– Good for rapid prototyping
– Useful in many AI applications
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
yes
?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
no
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
no
?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
ERROR: predicate tattoed/1 not defined.
?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- party.
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- party.
yes
?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- rockConcert.
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- rockConcert.
no
?-
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda). rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda). rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia). rule
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda). rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia). rule
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda). rule
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

head body
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?-
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
yes
?-
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(yolanda).
yes
 Clauses
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

There are five clauses in this knowledge base:

two facts, and three rules.

The end of a clause is marked with a full stop.

 Predicates
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

There are three predicates

in this knowledge base:
happy, listens2music, and playsAirGuitar
 Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).
 Expressing Conjunction
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

The comma “," expresses conjunction in Prolog

 Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

?- playsAirGuitar(vincent).
no
?-
 Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

?- playsAirGuitar(butch).
yes
?-
 Expressing Disjunction

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch); listens2music(butch).
 Prolog and Logic
• Clearly Prolog has something to do with
logic
• Operators
– Implication :-
– Conjunction ,
– Disjunction ;
• Use of modus ponens
• Negation
 Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
 Prolog Variables
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
 Variable Instantiation
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia
 Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
 Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody
 Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody;
X=yolanda
 Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody;
X=yolanda;
no
 Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(marsellus,X), woman(X).
 Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(marsellus,X), woman(X).
X=mia
yes
?-
 Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(pumpkin,X), woman(X).
 Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(pumpkin,X), woman(X).
no
?-
 Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

 Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

?- jealous(marsellus,W).
 Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

?- jealous(marsellus,W).
W=vincent
?-
 Prolog Syntax
• What exactly are facts, rules and
queries built out of?
Terms
Terms

Simple
Simple Terms
Terms Complex
Complex Terms
Terms

Constants
Constants Variables
Variables

Atoms
Atoms Numbers
Numbers
 Atoms
• A sequence of characters of upper-case letters,
lower-case letters, digits, or underscore, starting
with a lowercase letter
• Examples: butch, big_kahuna_burger, playGuitar

• An arbitrary sequence of characters enclosed in

single quotes
• Examples: 'Vincent', 'Five dollar shake', '@$%'

• A sequence of special characters

• Examples: : , ; . :-
 Numbers
• Integers: 12, -34, 22342
• Floats: 34573.3234
 Variables
• A sequence of characters of upper-
case letters, lower-case letters, digits,
or underscore, starting with either an
uppercase letter or an underscore

• Examples:

X, Y, Variable, Vincent, _tag

 Complex Terms
• Atoms, numbers and variables are
building blocks for complex terms
• Complex terms are built out of a functor
directly followed by a sequence of
arguments
• Arguments are put in round brackets,
separated by commas
• The functor must be an atom
Examples of complex terms
• Examples we have seen before:
– playsAirGuitar(jody)
– loves(vincent, mia)
– jealous(marsellus, W)

• Complex terms inside complex terms:

– hide(X,father(father(father(mona))))
 Arity
• The number of arguments a complex
term has is called its arity

• Examples:

woman(mia) is a term with arity 1

loves(vincent,mia) has arity 2
father(father(butch)) arity 1
 Arity is important
• In Prolog you can define two predicates
with the same functor but with different
arity
• Prolog would treat this as two different
predicates
• In Prolog documentation arity of a
predicate is usually indicated with the
suffix "/" followed by a number to
indicate the arity
 Example of Arity
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

• This knowledge base defines

– happy/1
– listens2music/1
– playsAirGuitar/1
 Summary of this lecture
• Simple examples of Prolog programs
• Introduced three basic constructs in Prolog:
– Facts
– Rules
– Queries
• Discussed other concepts, such as
– the role of logic
– unification with the help of variables
• Definition of Prolog constructs:
terms, atoms, and variables