Frequency Domain

specifications

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Introduction: Measurement Systems
 It is required to develop mathematical tools that will
allow us to quantitatively analyze measurement
systems.

Figure 1. General structure of an engineering

measurement system (Bentley, 1993)
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Introduction
Two types of mathematical tools:
1) Time Domain Analysis
- Time domain analysis examines the amplitude vs.
time characteristics of a measuring signal.

2) Frequency Domain Analysis

- Frequency domain analysis replaces the measured
signal with a group of sinusoids which, when added
together, produce a waveform equivalent to the
original.
- The relative amplitudes, frequencies, and phases
of the sinusoids are examined.
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Time Domain Analysis
 In time-domain analysis the response of a dynamic system
to an input is expressed as a function of time c(t).
 It is possible to compute the time response of a system if
the nature of input and the mathematical model of the
system are known.
 The time response of a system can be obtained by solving
the differential eq. governing the system.
 Alternatively, the response c(t) can be obtained from the
transfer function of the system and the input to the system

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 Time Domain Analysis

 For a closed loop transfer function,

C(s)/R(s)= G(s)/[1+G(s)H(s)]

 Response in s-domain,

C(s) = R(s)*M(s)

 Response in t-domain,

c(t) = InvLap[C(s)]
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Time Domain Analysis

Time Domain Specifications

 For specifying the desired performance

characteristics of a measurement control
system.
 These characteristics of a system of any order
may be specified in terms of transient
response to a unit step input signal.
 The response of a second order system for a
input is,

C (s ) wn2
= 2
R (s ) s + 2zwn s + wn2
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 Time Domain Analysis

Time Domain Specifications

1 Delay time 2 Rise time

3 Peak time 4 Peak overshoot
5 Settling time6 Steady-state error

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 Time Domain Analysis
Time Domain Specifications
1. Delay time : It is the time required for the response to
reach 50% of the final value in first attempt.
2. Rise time : It is the time required to rise from 0 to
100% of the final value for the under damped system.
3. Peak time : It is the time required for the response to
reach the peak of time response or the peak
overshoot.
4. Settling time : It is the time required for the response
to reach and stay within a specified tolerance band
( 2% or 5%) of its final value.
5. Peak overshoot : It is the normalized difference
between the time response peak and the steady output
and is defined as,

6. Steady-state error: It indicates the error between the

actual output and desired output as ‘t’ tends to infinity.
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Frequency Domain Analysis
 Introduction

 Advantages

- Stability of closed loop system can be

estimated
- Transfer function of complicated systems can
be determined experimentally by frequency
tests
- Effects of noise disturbance and parameter
variations are relatively easy to visualize.
- Analysis can be extended to certain nonlinear
control systems.
VIDEO
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Frequency Domain Analysis

Frequency Domain Specifications

1 Resonant Peak

2 Resonant Frequency

3 Bandwidth

4 Cut-off rate

5 Gain Margin

6 Phase Margin
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Frequency Domain Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications
1 Resonant Peak- Maximum value of the closed loop transfer
function.
2 Resonant Frequency- Frequency at which resonant peak
occurs.
3 Bandwidth- range of frequencies for which the system
normalized gain is more than -3db.
4 Cut-off rate- It is the slop of the log-magnitude curve near the
cut off frequency.
5 Gain Margin- The value of gain to be added to system in order
to bring the system to the verge of instability.
6 Phase Margin- Additional phase lag to be added at the gain
cross over freq. in order to bring the system to the verge of
instability.
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Frequency Domain Analysis
Frequency Response Plots

 Frequency domain analysis of a system can be

carried either analytically or graphically.

 The various graphical techniques are

1 Bode Plot
2 Polar Plot
3 Nichols Plot
4 M and N circles

 Frequency response plots are used to determine

the frequency domain specifications, to study
the stability of the system.
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
Example- Measurement from a Solar panel

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response Methods
and Stability
In previous chapters we examined the use of test signals such as a step and a ramp
signal. In this chapter we consider the steady-state response of a system to a sinusoidal
input test signal. We will see that the response of a linear constant coefficient system to
a sinusoidal input signal is an output sinusoidal signal at the same frequency as the
input. However, the magnitude and phase of the output signal differ from those of the
input sinusoidal signal, and the amount of difference is a function of the input frequency.
Thus we will be investigating the steady-state response of the system to a sinusoidal
input as the frequency varies.

We will examine the transfer function G(s) when s =jw and develop methods for
graphically displaying the complex number G(j)as w varies. The Bode plot is one of the
most powerful graphical tools for analyzing and designing control systems, and we will
cover that subject in this chapter. We will also consider polar plots and log magnitude
and phase diagrams. We will develop several time-domain performance measures in
terms of the frequency response of the system as well as introduce the concept of system
bandwidth.

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Introduction

The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state

response of the system to a sinusoidal input signal. The sinusoid
is a unique input signal, and the resulting output signal for a
linear system, as well as signals throughout the system, is
sinusoidal in the steady-state; it differs form the input waveform
only in amplitude and phase.

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 Summary

 Every measurement system require analysis of

its features or performance to work as a
system.

 Time domain analysis gives the behaviour of

the signal over time. This allows predictions
and regression models for the signal.

 Frequency Analysis is much easier. Some

equations can't be solved in time domain while
they can be solved easily in frequency domain.

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Frequency Response Plots

Polar Plots

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response Plots

Polar Plots
1
  1000 999 1000 j  1 R  1 C  0.01 1 
R C

1
G   Negative 
 j   1

 
 1  0.5

 

Im( G (  ) ) 0

 0
 0
 
0.5
0 0.5 1
Re( G(  ) )
 1

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Positive 
Frequency Response Plots

Polar Plots
7
0
 410
  0  .1  1000   0.5 K  100

K

G1   Im( G1 (  ) ) 500

j   j  
1

 

 997.506 1000
60 40 20 0
 49.875 Re( G1 (  ) ) 4
 210

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Frequency Response Plots

Polar Plots

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Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Real Poles

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Real Poles

0.1 0.11
    1000 j  1 R  1 C  0.01   R  C
 

1
1 1  1  100 (break frequency or corner frequency)
G   
j    1

0
-3dB

10

20 log G (  ) 
20

30 3
0.1 1 10 100 1 10

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
(break frequency or corner frequency)
Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Real Poles

   atan   

0.5

(  )

1.5 3
0.1 1 10 100 1 10


(break frequency or corner frequency)

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Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Real Poles (Graphical Construction)

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Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Real Poles

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Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Real Poles

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 Frequency Response Plots
Magnitude:
Bode Plots – Real Poles
db  G     20 log G  j   
Phase shift:
180
ps  G     arg G  j     360  if  arg G  j     0  1  0 

Assume
K
K  2 G ( s) 

s ( 1  s)  1 
s

 3

Next, choose a frequency rangefor the plots (use powers of 10 for convenient plotting):
lowest frequency (in Hz):  start  .01 number of points: N  50
highest frequency (in Hz):  end  100

  start  1
step size: r  log 

 end  N
range for plot: i  0  N range variable: i r
 i   end 10 si  j  i
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Real Poles

range for plot: i  0  N range variable: i r
 i   end 10 si  j  i

100

20  log G  s i  0

0
100

200
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
i

ps  G  i

 180

0.01 0.1 1 10 100

i
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Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Complex Poles

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Complex Poles

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Complex Poles

2
r n  1  2    0.707

 
1
Mp G r
 2   0.707
 2  1   

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Complex Poles

2
r n  1  2    0.707

 
1
M p G r
 2  1  2    0.707
 

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Complex Poles

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Complex Poles

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Performance Specification In the Frequency Domain

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Performance Specification In the Frequency Domain
  .1  .11  2 K  2 j  1

K
G  
j   j   1   j   2 Bode1   20 log G  

20

Open Loop Bode Diagram

Bode1(  ) 0

20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

G 

T  
1  G  Bode2   20 log T  

10

0
Bode2(  )

10 Closed-Loop Bode Diagram

20
0.5 1 1.5 2
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Performance Specification In the Frequency Domain

w  4
Finding the Resonance Frequency
Given

20 log T( w)  5.282

wr  Find( w) wr  0.813

Mpw  1

Given

20 log( Mpw) 5.282 Finding Maximum value of the frequency response

Mpw  Find( Mpw) Mpw  1.837 10

0
Bode2(  )

10 Closed-Loop Bode Diagram

20
0.5 1 1.5 2

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Performance Specification In the Frequency Domain

Assume that the system has dominant second-order roots

  .1 Finding the damping factor

Given 10

1
  2 
Mpw 2   1    0
Bode2(  )

  Find 
10 Closed-Loop Bode Diagram
  0.284
20
wn  .1 Finding the natural frequency
0.5 1 1.5 2


Given
2
wr wn  1  2 

wn  Find( wn ) wn  0.888
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Performance Specification In the Frequency Domain

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 Performance Specification
In the Frequency Domain

5
GH1 
  
j   0.5 j   1   j  1 
 6 

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Performance Specification In the Frequency Domain
Example

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Performance Specification In the Frequency Domain
Example

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Performance Specification In the Frequency Domain
Example

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Performance Specification In the Frequency Domain
Example

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Frequency Response Methods Using MATLAB

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Frequency Response Methods Using MATLAB

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response Methods Using MATLAB

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response Methods Using MATLAB

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response Methods Using MATLAB

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response
Methods Using
MATLAB

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Frequency Response
Methods Using
MATLAB

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Bode Plots
 
Bode plot is the representation of the magnitude and phase of G(j*w) (where the
frequency vector w contains only positive frequencies).
To see the Bode plot of a transfer function, you can use the MATLAB
bode
command.

For example,
 
bode(50,[1 9 30 40])
 
displays the Bode plots for the
transfer function:
 
50 / (s^3 + 9 s^2 + 30 s + 40)

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Gain and Phase Margin
 
Let's say that we have the following system:
 
 where K is a variable (constant) gain and G(s) is the plant under consideration.
 
The gain margin is defined as the change in open loop gain required to make the
system unstable. Systems with greater gain margins can withstand greater changes
in system parameters before becoming unstable in closed loop. Keep in mind that
unity gain in magnitude is equal to a gain of zero in dB.
 
The phase margin is defined as the change in open loop phase shift required to make
a closed loop system unstable.
 
The phase margin is the difference in phase between the phase curve and -180 deg
at the point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a gain of 0dB (the gain
cross over frequency, Wgc).
 
Likewise, the gain margin is the difference between the magnitude curve and 0dB at
the point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a phase of -180 deg (the
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
phase cross over frequency, Wpc).
Gain and Phase Margin

-180

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Gain and Phase Margin
We can find the gain and phase margins for a system directly, by using MATLAB.
Just enter the margin command.
This command returns the gain
and phase margins, the gain and
phase cross over frequencies, and
a graphical representation of these
on the Bode plot.

margin(50,[1 9 30 40])
 

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Gain and Phase Margin

Magnitude:

db  G     20 log G  j   
Phase shift:
180
ps  G     arg G  j     360  if  arg G  j     0  1  0 

Assume
K
K  2 G ( s) 

s ( 1  s)  1 
s

 3

Next, choose a frequency rangefor the plots (use powers of 10 for convenient plotting):
lowest frequency (in Hz):  start  .01 number of points: N  50
highest frequency (in Hz):  end  100

  start  1
step size: r  log 

 end  N
range for plot: i  0  N range variable: i r
 i   end 10 si  j  i
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
Gain and Phase Margin

Guess for crossover frequency:  c  1

Solve for the gain crossover frequency:

 
 c  root db G   c   c   c  1.193

Calculate thephase margin:

 
pm  ps G   c  180 pm  18.265 degrees

Gain Margin

Now using the phase angle plot, estimate the frequency at which the phase shift crosses 180 degrees:

 gm  1.8

Solve for  at the phase shift point of 180 degrees:

  
 gm  root ps G   gm  180   gm 
 gm  1.732

Calculate thegain margin:


gm  db G   gm  gm  6.021
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
The Nyquist Stability Criterion
 
The Nyquist plot allows us also to predict the stability and performance of a closed-loop system by observing
its open-loop behavior. The Nyquist criterion can be used for design purposes regardless of open-loop
stability (Bode design methods assume that the system is stable in open loop). Therefore, we use this criterion
to determine closed-loop stability when the Bode plots display confusing information.
 
The Nyquist diagram is basically a plot of G(j* w) where G(s) is the open-loop transfer function and w is a
vector of frequencies which encloses the entire right-half plane. In drawing the Nyquist diagram, both
positive and negative frequencies (from zero to infinity) are taken into account. In the illustration below we
represent positive frequencies in red and negative frequencies in green. The frequency vector used in plotting
the Nyquist diagram usually looks like this (if you can imagine the plot stretching out to infinity):
 
However, if we have open-loop poles or zeros on the jw axis, G(s) will not be defined at those points, and we
must loop around them when we are plotting the contour. Such a contour would look as follows:

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

The Cauchy criterion

The Cauchy criterion (from complex analysis) states that when taking a closed contour in
the complex plane, and mapping it through a complex function G(s), the number of times
that the plot of G(s) encircles the origin is equal to the number of zeros of G(s) enclosed
by the frequency contour minus the number of poles of G(s) enclosed by the frequency
contour. Encirclements of the origin are counted as positive if they are in the same
direction as the original closed contour or negative if they are in the opposite direction.
 
When studying feedback controls, we are not as interested in G(s) as in the closed-loop
transfer function:
G(s)
---------
1 + G(s)
If 1+ G(s) encircles the origin, then G(s) will enclose the point -1.
Since we are interested in the closed-loop stability, we want to know if there are any
closed-loop poles (zeros of 1 + G(s)) in the right-half plane.
 
Therefore, the behavior of the Nyquist diagram around the -1 point in the real axis is very
important; however, the axis on the standard nyquist diagram might make it hard to
see what's happening around this point
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Gain and Phase Margin

Gain Margin is defined as the change in open-loop gain expressed in decibels (dB), required at 180
degrees of phase shift to make the system unstable. First of all, let's say that we have a system that
is stable if there are no Nyquist encirclements of -1, such as :
50
-----------------------
s^3 + 9 s^2 + 30 s + 40

 Looking at the roots, we find that we have no open loop poles in the right half plane and therefore no
closed-loop poles in the right half plane if there are no Nyquist encirclements of -1. Now, how much
can we vary the gain before this system becomes unstable in closed loop?  

The open-loop system represented by this plot will become unstable in closed loop if the gain is
increased past a certain boundary.

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 The Nyquist Stability Criterion
 
and that the Nyquist diagram can be viewed by typing:
nyquist (50, [1 9 30 40 ])
 

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Gain and Phase Margin
 

Phase margin as the change in open-loop phase shift required at unity gain to make a
closed-loop system unstable.

From our previous example we know that this particular system will be unstable in closed
loop if the Nyquist diagram encircles the -1 point. However, we must also realize that if the
diagram is shifted by theta degrees, it will then touch the -1 point at the negative real axis,
making the system marginally stable in closed loop. Therefore, the angle required to make
this system marginally stable in closed loop is called the phase margin (measured in
degrees). In order to find the point we measure this angle from, we draw a circle with radius
of 1, find the point in the Nyquist diagram with a magnitude of 1 (gain of zero dB), and
measure the phase shift needed for this point to be at an angle of 180 deg.

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 The Nyquist Stability Criterion

w  100 99.9 100 j  1 s ( w)  j w f ( w)  1

50 4.6
G( w) 
3 2
s ( w)  9 s ( w)  30 s ( w)  40
5

Im( G( w) )
0
0

5
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Re( G( w) )

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Consider the Negative Feedback System
 

 Remember from the Cauchy criterion that the number N of times that the plot of G(s)H(s) encircles -1 is
equal to the number Z of zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) enclosed by the frequency contour minus the number P of
poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) enclosed by the frequency contour (N = Z - P).
Keeping careful track of open- and closed-loop transfer functions, as well as numerators and
denominators, you should convince yourself that:
·        the zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the poles of the closed-loop transfer function
·        the poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the poles of the open-loop transfer function.
The Nyquist criterion then states that:
·        P = the number of open-loop (unstable) poles of G(s)H(s)
·        N = the number of times the Nyquist diagram encircles -1
·        clockwise encirclements of -1 count as positive encirclements
·        counter-clockwise (or anti-clockwise) encirclements of -1 count as negative encirclements
·        Z = the number of right half-plane (positive, real) poles of the closed-loop system
The important equation which relates these three quantities is:
 

Z = P + N

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 The Nyquist Stability Criterion - Application

Knowing the number of right-half plane (unstable) poles in open loop (P), and the
number of encirclements of -1 made by the Nyquist diagram (N), we can determine
the closed-loop stability of the system.

If Z = P + N is a positive, nonzero number, the closed-loop system is unstable.

We can also use the Nyquist diagram to find the range of gains for a closed-loop
unity feedback system to be stable. The system we will test looks like this:

where G(s) is :
s^2 + 10 s + 24
---------------
s^2 - 8 s + 15

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 The Nyquist Stability Criterion
This system has a gain K which can be varied in order to modify the response of the closed-loop
system. However, we will see that we can only vary this gain within certain limits, since we have to
make sure that our closed-loop system will be stable. This is what we will be looking for: the range
of gains that will make this system stable in the closed loop.
 
The first thing we need to do is find the number of positive real poles in our open-loop transfer
function:

roots([1 -8 15])
  ans =
5
3
The poles of the open-loop transfer function are both positive. Therefore, we need two anti-
clockwise (N = -2) encirclements of the Nyquist diagram in order to have a stable closed-loop
system (Z = P + N). If the number of encirclements is less than two or the encirclements are not
anti-clockwise, our system will be unstable.
 
Let's look at our Nyquist diagram for a gain of 1:
 
nyquist([ 1 10 24], [ 1 -8 15])

There are two anti-clockwise encirclements of -1.

Therefore, the system is stable for a gain of 1.
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
The Nyquist Stability Criterion

MathCAD Implementation

w  100 99.9 100 j  1 s ( w)  j w

2
s ( w)  10 s ( w)  24
G( w) 
2 There are two anti-
s ( w)  8 s ( w)  15 clockwise encirclements of
-1.
2 Therefore, the system is
stable for a gain of 1.

Im( G( w) )
0
0

2
2 1 0 1 2
Re( G ( w) )
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
The Nyquist Stability Criterion

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Time-Domain Performance Criteria Specified
In The Frequency Domain

Open and closed-loop frequency responses are related by:

G  j
T j
1  G  j
1
Mpw   0.707
2
2   1  

G   u  j v M M  

G  j
2 2
u  jv u v
M 
1  G  j 1  u  jv 2 2
( 1  u)  v
Squaring and rearrenging
2 which is the equation of a
 M
2 2  M 
2 circle on u-v planwe with a
u v 
 2 center at
1M 
2
  1M  M
2
u v 0
2
1M
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
Time-Domain Performance Criteria Specified
In The Frequency Domain

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

The Nichols Stability Method
Polar Stability Plot - Nichols Mathcad Implementation

This example makes a polar plot of a transfer function and draws one contour of constant
closed-loop magnitude. To draw the plot, enter a definition for the transfer function
G(s):

45000
G ( s) 
s ( s  2) ( s  30)
The frequency range defined by the next two equations provides a logarithmic frequency scale
forand  m:
running from 1 to 100. You can change this range by editing the definitionsm

.02  m
m  0  100  m  10
Now enter a value forM to define the closed-loop magnitude contour that will be plotted.
M  1.1
Calculate the points on the M-circle:

 M2 M 
MCm   
exp 2  j .01 m
 M2  1 2 
 M 1 
The first plot showsG, the contour of constant closed-loop magnitude,M

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

The Nichols Stability Method

The first plot showsG, the contour of constant closed-loop magnitude,M, and the
Nyquist of the open loop system

Im  G  j  m 

Im  MCm

Re  G  j  m   Re  MCm   1

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

The Nichols Stability Method

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 Mpw
The Nichols Stability Method

1
G    
j   j   1  0.2  j   1

Mpw  2.5 dB  r  0.8

The closed-loop phase angle

at r is equal to -72 degrees and b = 1.33
The closed-loop phase angle atb is equal to
-142 degrees

-3dB
-72 deg
-142 deg Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
The Nichols Stability Method

0.64
G    
j   j    j   1
2

Phase Margin = 30 degrees

On the basis of the phase we estimate  0.30

Mpw  9 dB Mpw  2.8  r  0.88 GM

From equation
1
Mpw   0.18
2
2   1  
We are confronted with comflectings

The apparent conflict is caused by the nature of

G(j) which slopes rapidally toward 180 degrees
line from the 0-dB axis. The designer must use
the frequency-domain-time-domain correlation PM
with caution

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

The Nichols Stability Method

GM

PM

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples – Bode and Nyquist

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples - Bode

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples - Bode

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples – Bode and Nyquist

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples - Nichols

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples - Nichols

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 83
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
Constant M and N circles

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 Lecture 27

Frequency domain charts

Topics to be covered include:
• Nyquist chart.
 Constant M loci.
 Constant N loci.
• Nichols chart.
 Constant gain loci.
 Constant phase loci.
 Nichols chart specification.
• Effect of adding poles and zeros on loop transfer function.
85
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Closed loop transfer functions
R (s )+ C (s)
Gc (s ) G (s)
-

Gc ( s )G ( s ) L( s ) 1 1
L( s )  Gc ( s)G ( s) T ( s)   S ( s)  
1  Gc ( s)G ( s) 1  L( s) 1  Gc ( s)G ( s) 1  L( s)

|L|

MP Ms
BW | T |

|S|

Frequency (rad/s)  p
86
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Closed loop values from Nyquist chart
R (s )+ C (s)
Gc (s ) G (s )
- 150
Let Gc ( s )G ( s) 
s( s  5)( s  10)
Nyquist Diagram

 7   20
T ( j1)  ?  1
0  5
4
 G( j1)Gc ( j1)  0.86  2.8 j
-0.5
 3
T ( j1)  ?
-1
2
Imaginary Axis

L( j1)  0.86  2.8 j

T ( j1)  
-1.5 1  L( j1) 1  0.86  2.8 j

-2 T ( j1)  1.04  20

T ( j 2)  ? T ( j 3)  ? T ( j )  ?
-2.5
 1
-3
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Mp ?
87
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
Real Axis
M circles (constant magnitude of T)

88
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
N circles (constant phase of T)

89
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Closed loop values from Nichols chart
R (s)+ C (s)
Gc (s ) G (s )
- 150
Let Gc ( s)G ( s) 
s( s  5)( s  10)

20
Nichols Chart
T ( j1)  ?   1
20 log G ( j )G ( j )  9.43
c

10  1

2 Gc ( j )G ( j )  107

0 Gc ( j )G( j )
 3  G ( j1)Gc ( j1)  2.93  107
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

4
 5
-10 T ( j1)  ?
 6
 8 L( j1) 2.93  107
T ( j1)  
-20 1  L( j1) 1  2.93  107
T ( j1)  1.04  20
-30
  20 T ( j 2)  ? T ( j 3)  ? T ( j )  ?
-40
-270 -225 -180 -135 -90 M p  ?Ali Karimpour
90
Apr 2009
Open-Loop Phase (deg)
Constant gain and phase loci in Nichols chart
R+ C
Gc G
-

M circles and N circles

on Nichols chart

91
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
Nichols chart specification

R+
Gc G
C
How to plot |T| versus
-
frequency?
How to plot <T versus
frequency?
How to derive cross over
frequencies?
How to derive φm and GM?
How to derive open loop
bandwidth?
How to derive closed loop
bandwidth?
How to derive Mp?
How to derive ωp?
How to derive type of
system?
How to derive error
coefficient? 92
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Effect of adding poles on Bode plot.

Bode Diagram

r e c2 20

G (s ) 0
-

Magnitude (dB)
-20

-40

-60

Adding poles -80

-90

-135
Phase (deg)

-180
r e 1 c2
G (s ) -225
- 1  s
-270
1/
0 1 2
10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

BW System speed tr
93
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Effect of adding poles on Nyquist plot.

r e c2
G (s )
-

Adding poles
-1

r e 1 c2
G (s )
- 1  s
G(jw)

94
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Adding poles to open loop transfer functions

r e 1 c2 C2 ( s ) n2
G (s ) M 2 ( s)   3
- 1  s R( s ) s  (1  2 n ) s 2  2 n s  n2

n  1   0.5   0 , 1, 2 , 5

P.O.
Step Response
2

1.8
τ=5.0
1.6
τ=2.0 tr
1.4 τ=1.0
1.2
τ=0
System speed
Amplitude

0.8

0.6
BW
0.4

0.2 More problem as

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
poles go to ?? 95
Time (sec) Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Effect of adding zeros on Bode plot.

Bode Diagram
20

r e c2 0

G (s )

Magnitude (dB)
- -20

-40

-60

-80
-90
Adding zeros
-135
Phase (deg)

-180

r e c2
G (s) 1  s -225
-
-270
10
0
1/ 10
1
10
2

Frequency (rad/sec)

BW System speed tr
96
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Effect of adding zeros on Nyquist plot.

r e c2
G (s )
-

-1
Adding zeros

r e c2
G (s ) 1  s
-
G(jw)

97
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Adding zeros to open loop transfer functions
‫اضافه کردن صفر به تابع انتقال حلقه باز‬
r e c2
G (s) 1  s C2 ( s ) 6(1   s )
- M 2 (s)   3
R( s ) s  3s 2  (2  6 ) s  6
  0 , 0.2 , 0.5 , 2 , 5 ,10
Step Response
2

1.8 τ=0
τ=0.2
P.O.
τ=10
tr
1.6

1.4 τ=5.0 τ=0.5

τ=2.0
1.2
Amplitude

0.8
System speed
0.6

0.4 BW
0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Note: For τ<0 system
is unstable. Why?
Time (sec)

98
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Example 1: Derive the Bode plot of following system.
a s  1
G( s ) 
 s 1
Bode Diagram
50
30
Let a  1 20

Magnitude (db)
40

20 log G( j)  20 log a

Magnitude (dB)
1030

1
 20 log a j  1  20 log 020
 j  1
 10

G( j)   200

9090
1
 (a j  1)  ( ) m
 j  1
Phase (deg)

?
Phase (deg)

045
m  tan (a)  tan ()
1 1

a  
tan(m )   900
1  a 2 2 10
10
00
1011
10 1 / a 1 /  10102
2
10
10
3

Frequency(rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
 tan(m ) (a  )(1  a  )  2a (a )
2 2 2
1 a 1
 (1  a 
2 2
)  2a 
2 2
  sin  
 (1  a 2 2 )2  a m
a 1
99
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Example 1: Derive the Bode plot of the following system.
a s  1
G( s ) 
 s 1

Bode Diagram
Let a  1 50
30

20

Magnitude (db)
40
20 log G( j) 

Magnitude (dB)
1030
1
 20 log a j  1  20 log 020
 j  1
 10 20 log a
G( j)   200
9090
1
 (a j  1)  ( )
 j  1
Phase (deg)
Phase (deg)

045

 900
10
10
00
1011
10 1/ 1 / a 102
2
10
10
3

Frequency(rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
100
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Exercises

1 The Nichols chart of an open loop system with negative unit feedback
is shown.
a) Find the GM and PM.
b) Find MP.
Nichols Chart
40
0 dB
0.25 dB
0.5 dB
20 1 dB -1 dB
3 dB
6 dB -3 dB
0 -6 dB
-12 dB
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

-20 -20 dB

-40 -40 dB

-60 -60 dB

-80 -80 dB

-100 -100 dB answer a :GM  14 db, PM  45 b : M p  1.8 db

-120 dB
-120
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0 101
Open-Loop Phase (deg) Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Exercises

2 The Nichols chart of a open loop system with negative unit feedback is shown.
a) Find the error constants
b) Find the GM and PM and gain crossover frequency and phase crossover frequency.
c) Find MP , open loop bandwidth and closed loop bandwidth.

Nichols Chart
40
0 dB
0.25 dB   0.1
0.5 dB
20 1 dB -1 dB
3 dB
6 dB 2 -3 dB
0  3 -6 dB
 5 -12 dB
7
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

-20 dB
-20
  12
-40 -40 dB

-60 -60 dB

-80 -80 dB
answer a : k p  , k v  5, k a  0
-100 -100 dB b : GM  10 db, PM  32 , c  3.75 rad / sec, 180  7 rad / sec
-120 dB c : M p  5.3 db, BWopen loop  4.7 rad / sec, BWclosedloop  6.3 rad / sec
-120
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
102
Open-Loop Phase (deg) Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 103
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
Use of Nichol’s Chart
in
Control System
Analysis
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
The Nyquist Stability Criterion
 
The Nyquist plot allows us also to predict the stability and performance of a closed-loop system by observing
its open-loop behavior. The Nyquist criterion can be used for design purposes regardless of open-loop
stability (Bode design methods assume that the system is stable in open loop). Therefore, we use this criterion
to determine closed-loop stability when the Bode plots display confusing information.
 
The Nyquist diagram is basically a plot of G(j* w) where G(s) is the open-loop transfer function and w is a
vector of frequencies which encloses the entire right-half plane. In drawing the Nyquist diagram, both
positive and negative frequencies (from zero to infinity) are taken into account. In the illustration below we
represent positive frequencies in red and negative frequencies in green. The frequency vector used in plotting
the Nyquist diagram usually looks like this (if you can imagine the plot stretching out to infinity):
 
However, if we have open-loop poles or zeros on the jw axis, G(s) will not be defined at those points, and we
must loop around them when we are plotting the contour. Such a contour would look as follows:

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

The Cauchy criterion

The Cauchy criterion (from complex analysis) states that when taking a closed contour in
the complex plane, and mapping it through a complex function G(s), the number of times
that the plot of G(s) encircles the origin is equal to the number of zeros of G(s) enclosed
by the frequency contour minus the number of poles of G(s) enclosed by the frequency
contour. Encirclements of the origin are counted as positive if they are in the same
direction as the original closed contour or negative if they are in the opposite direction.
 
When studying feedback controls, we are not as interested in G(s) as in the closed-loop
transfer function:
G(s)
---------
1 + G(s)
If 1+ G(s) encircles the origin, then G(s) will enclose the point -1.
Since we are interested in the closed-loop stability, we want to know if there are any
closed-loop poles (zeros of 1 + G(s)) in the right-half plane.
 
Therefore, the behavior of the Nyquist diagram around the -1 point in the real axis is very
important; however, the axis on the standard nyquist diagram might make it hard to
see what's happening around this point
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
 Gain and Phase Margin

Gain Margin is defined as the change in open-loop gain expressed in decibels (dB), required at 180
degrees of phase shift to make the system unstable. First of all, let's say that we have a system that
is stable if there are no Nyquist encirclements of -1, such as :
50
-----------------------
s^3 + 9 s^2 + 30 s + 40

 Looking at the roots, we find that we have no open loop poles in the right half plane and therefore no
closed-loop poles in the right half plane if there are no Nyquist encirclements of -1. Now, how much
can we vary the gain before this system becomes unstable in closed loop?  

The open-loop system represented by this plot will become unstable in closed loop if the gain is
increased past a certain boundary.

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 The Nyquist Stability Criterion
 
and that the Nyquist diagram can be viewed by typing:
nyquist (50, [1 9 30 40 ])
 

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Gain and Phase Margin
 

Phase margin as the change in open-loop phase shift required at unity gain to make a
closed-loop system unstable.

From our previous example we know that this particular system will be unstable in closed
loop if the Nyquist diagram encircles the -1 point. However, we must also realize that if the
diagram is shifted by theta degrees, it will then touch the -1 point at the negative real axis,
making the system marginally stable in closed loop. Therefore, the angle required to make
this system marginally stable in closed loop is called the phase margin (measured in
degrees). In order to find the point we measure this angle from, we draw a circle with radius
of 1, find the point in the Nyquist diagram with a magnitude of 1 (gain of zero dB), and
measure the phase shift needed for this point to be at an angle of 180 deg.

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 The Nyquist Stability Criterion

w  100 99.9 100 j  1 s ( w)  j w f ( w)  1

50 4.6
G( w) 
3 2
s ( w)  9 s ( w)  30 s ( w)  40
5

Im( G( w) )
0
0

5
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Re( G( w) )

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Consider the Negative Feedback System
 

 Remember from the Cauchy criterion that the number N of times that the plot of G(s)H(s) encircles -1 is
equal to the number Z of zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) enclosed by the frequency contour minus the number P of
poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) enclosed by the frequency contour (N = Z - P).
Keeping careful track of open- and closed-loop transfer functions, as well as numerators and
denominators, you should convince yourself that:
·        the zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the poles of the closed-loop transfer function
·        the poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the poles of the open-loop transfer function.
The Nyquist criterion then states that:
·        P = the number of open-loop (unstable) poles of G(s)H(s)
·        N = the number of times the Nyquist diagram encircles -1
·        clockwise encirclements of -1 count as positive encirclements
·        counter-clockwise (or anti-clockwise) encirclements of -1 count as negative encirclements
·        Z = the number of right half-plane (positive, real) poles of the closed-loop system
The important equation which relates these three quantities is:
 

Z = P + N

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 The Nyquist Stability Criterion - Application

Knowing the number of right-half plane (unstable) poles in open loop (P), and the
number of encirclements of -1 made by the Nyquist diagram (N), we can determine
the closed-loop stability of the system.

If Z = P + N is a positive, nonzero number, the closed-loop system is unstable.

We can also use the Nyquist diagram to find the range of gains for a closed-loop
unity feedback system to be stable. The system we will test looks like this:

where G(s) is :
s^2 + 10 s + 24
---------------
s^2 - 8 s + 15

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 The Nyquist Stability Criterion
This system has a gain K which can be varied in order to modify the response of the closed-loop
system. However, we will see that we can only vary this gain within certain limits, since we have to
make sure that our closed-loop system will be stable. This is what we will be looking for: the range
of gains that will make this system stable in the closed loop.
 
The first thing we need to do is find the number of positive real poles in our open-loop transfer
function:

roots([1 -8 15])
  ans =
5
3
The poles of the open-loop transfer function are both positive. Therefore, we need two anti-
clockwise (N = -2) encirclements of the Nyquist diagram in order to have a stable closed-loop
system (Z = P + N). If the number of encirclements is less than two or the encirclements are not
anti-clockwise, our system will be unstable.
 
Let's look at our Nyquist diagram for a gain of 1:
 
nyquist([ 1 10 24], [ 1 -8 15])

There are two anti-clockwise encirclements of -1.

Therefore, the system is stable for a gain of 1.
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
The Nyquist Stability Criterion

MathCAD Implementation

w  100 99.9 100 j  1 s ( w)  j w

2
s ( w)  10 s ( w)  24
G( w) 
2 There are two anti-
s ( w)  8 s ( w)  15 clockwise encirclements of
-1.
2 Therefore, the system is
stable for a gain of 1.

Im( G( w) )
0
0

2
2 1 0 1 2
Re( G ( w) )
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
The Nyquist Stability Criterion

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Time-Domain Performance Criteria Specified
In The Frequency Domain

Open and closed-loop frequency responses are related by:

G  j
T j
1  G  j
1
Mpw   0.707
2
2   1  

G   u  j v M M  

G  j
2 2
u  jv u v
M 
1  G  j 1  u  jv 2 2
( 1  u)  v
Squaring and rearrenging
2 which is the equation of a
 M
2 2  M 
2 circle on u-v planwe with a
u v 
 2 center at
1M 
2
  1M  M
2
u v 0
2
1M
Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
Time-Domain Performance Criteria Specified
In The Frequency Domain

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

The Nichols Stability Method
Polar Stability Plot - Nichols Mathcad Implementation

This example makes a polar plot of a transfer function and draws one contour of constant
closed-loop magnitude. To draw the plot, enter a definition for the transfer function
G(s):

45000
G ( s) 
s ( s  2) ( s  30)
The frequency range defined by the next two equations provides a logarithmic frequency scale
forand  m:
running from 1 to 100. You can change this range by editing the definitionsm

.02  m
m  0  100  m  10
Now enter a value forM to define the closed-loop magnitude contour that will be plotted.
M  1.1
Calculate the points on the M-circle:

 M2 M 
MCm   
exp 2  j .01 m
 M2  1 2 
 M 1 
The first plot showsG, the contour of constant closed-loop magnitude,M

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

The Nichols Stability Method

The first plot showsG, the contour of constant closed-loop magnitude,M, and the
Nyquist of the open loop system

Im  G  j  m 

Im  MCm

Re  G  j  m   Re  MCm   1

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

The Nichols Stability Method

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

 Mpw
The Nichols Stability Method

1
G    
j   j   1  0.2  j   1

Mpw  2.5 dB  r  0.8

The closed-loop phase angle

at r is equal to -72 degrees and b = 1.33
The closed-loop phase angle atb is equal to
-142 degrees

-3dB
-72 deg
-142 deg Ali Karimpour Apr 2009
The Nichols Stability Method

0.64
G    
j   j    j   1
2

Phase Margin = 30 degrees

On the basis of the phase we estimate  0.30

Mpw  9 dB Mpw  2.8  r  0.88 GM

From equation
1
Mpw   0.18
2
2   1  
We are confronted with comflectings

The apparent conflict is caused by the nature of

G(j) which slopes rapidally toward 180 degrees
line from the 0-dB axis. The designer must use
the frequency-domain-time-domain correlation PM
with caution

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

The Nichols Stability Method

GM

PM

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples – Bode and Nyquist

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples - Bode

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples - Bode

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples – Bode and Nyquist

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples - Nichols

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009

Examples - Nichols

Ali Karimpour Apr 2009