Theory of Metal Machining

THEORY OF METAL MACHINING
1. Overview of Machining Technology

2. Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
3. Force Relationships and the Merchant
Equation
4. Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
5. Cutting Temperature
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common
feature of which is removal of material from a
starting workpart so the remaining part has the
desired geometry
 Machining – material removal by a sharp
cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
 Abrasive processes – material removal by
hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
 Nontraditional processes - various energy
forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material
Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
 As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
Figure 21.2 (a) A cross‑sectional view of the machining process, (b)

tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Why Machining is Important
 Variety of work materials can be machined
 Most frequently used to cut metals
 Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
 Screw threads
 Accurate round holes
 Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Disadvantages with Machining
 Wasteful of material
 Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
 Time consuming
 A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
Machining in Manufacturing Sequence
 Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
 Other processes create the general shape
of the starting workpart
 Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create
Machining Operations
 Most important machining operations:
 Turning
 Drilling
 Milling
 Other machining operations:
 Shaping and planing
 Broaching
 Sawing
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a

rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
Figure 21.3 Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,
Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of
a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges
Figure 21.3 (b) drilling,
Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
 Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
Figure 21.3 (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.
Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
 One dominant cutting edge
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose
radius
 Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple
cutting edge tools
Cutting Tools
Figure 21.4 (a) A single‑point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool
point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with
multiple cutting edges.
Cutting Conditions in Machining
 Three dimensions of a machining process:
 Cutting speed v – primary motion
 Feed f – secondary motion
 Depth of cut d – penetration of tool
below original work surface
 For certain operations, material removal
rate can be computed as
RMR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d =
depth of cut
Cutting Conditions for Turning
Figure 21.5 Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.
Roughing vs. Finishing
In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part, followed by one or two
finishing cuts
 Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting workpart
 Creates shape close to desired geometry,
but leaves some material for finish cutting
 High feeds and depths, low speeds
 Finishing - completes part geometry
 Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
 Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
Machine Tools
A power‑driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
 Functions in machining:
 Holds workpart
 Positions tool relative to work
 Provides power at speed, feed, and depth
that have been set
 The term is also applied to machines that
perform metal forming operations
Orthogonal Cutting Model
Simplified 2-D model of machining
that describes the mechanics of
machining fairly accurately.
Actual machining is 3D
Orthogonal cutting model uses a
wedge shaped tool in which cutting
edge is perpendicular to the
direction of cutting speed.
As tool is forced into the material,
the chip is formed by the shear
deformation of the material along a
plane called shear plane which is
oriented at an angle with the
surface of the material.
Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting

The orthogonal cutting model
Along a shear plane, bulk

of the energy is consumed
in machining the material
is plastically deformed.
Role of rake and relief angles.
Relationship between shear angle, chip
thickness and rake angle
 Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal

model, the shear plane angle  can be determined as:
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin
where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle

Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Figure 21.7 Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation
depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b)
one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain
triangle used to derive strain equation.
Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Shear strain in machining can be
computed from the following equation,
based on the preceding parallel plate
model:
 = tan( - ) + cot 
where  = shear strain,  = shear

plane angle, and  = rake angle of
cutting tool
Problems
Chip Formation
Figure 21.8 More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear

zone rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear
zone resulting from tool‑chip friction.
Difference between orthogonal model and actual
machining process/Primary deformation plane/zone???
Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
Discontinuous Chip
 Brittle work materials
 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth
of cut
 High tool‑chip friction
Figure 21.9 Four types of

chip formation in metal
cutting: (a) discontinuous
Continuous Chip
 Ductile work materials
 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and
depths
 Sharp cutting edge
 Low tool‑chip friction
Problem during machining as

entanglement with the
workpiece is observed.
Use of chip breaker is
normally employed.
Continuous with BUE
 Ductile materials
 Low‑to‑medium cutting
speeds
 Tool-chip friction
causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
 BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically
Figure 21.9 (c) continuous

with built‑up edge
Serrated Chip
 Semicontinuous -
saw-tooth
appearance
 Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
 Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds Figure 21.9 (d) serrated.
Forces Acting on Chip
 Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
 Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn
Figure 21.10 Forces in

metal cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting
Resultant Forces
 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
 Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
 Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
 R' must be equal in magnitude to R
 R’ must be opposite in direction to R
 R’ must be collinear with R
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F

N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction

as follows:
  tan 
Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
F
S s
As
where As = area of the shear plane

tow
As 
sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material

during cutting
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
 F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
 Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
 Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft
Figure 21.10 Forces

in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
Forces in Metal Cutting
 Equations can be derived to relate the forces
that cannot be measured to the forces that can
be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Based on these calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined
The Merchant Equation
 Of all the possible angles at which shear
deformation can occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle  that minimizes
energy, given by
 
  45  
2 2
 Derived by Eugene Merchant
 Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity
extends to 3-D machining
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us
 
  45  
2 2
 To increase shear plane angle

 Increase the rake angle
 Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of
friction)
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
 Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear
plane which means lower shear force, cutting
forces, power, and temperature
Figure 21.12 Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher  with a

resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller  with a corresponding
larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a),
which tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant
equation
Power and Energy Relationships
 A machining operation requires power
 The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = F c v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force;
and v = cutting speed
 In U.S. customary units, power is traditional
expressed as horsepower (dividing ft‑lb/min by
33,000)
Fcv
HPc 
33,000
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp
 Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or
HPg is given by
Pc HPc
Pg  or HPg 
E E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

 Typical E for machine tools  90%
Unit Power in Machining
 Useful to convert power into power per unit
volume rate of metal cut
 Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu
Pc HPc
PU =or HPu =
RMR RMR
where RMR = material removal rate
Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Pc Fc v
U = Pu = =
RMR vt ow
Units for specific energy are typically

N‑m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in‑lb/in3)
Cutting tools sharp

Chip thickness=0.25mm
Dullness tool: 1-1.25
Sharp: 1.00
Finishing: 1.10
Roughing: 1.25
T is reduced, specific energy or unit
power requirement increases called
Size effect like in grinding
Multiply the specific
energy this correction
factor however other
factors also influence like
rake angle, cutting speed
and cutting fluids
Distribution of
energy
At higher speed,
rapid motion of the
chip across the
rake face provides
less opportunity for
generated heat to
flow into the tool
Cutting Temperature
 Approximately 98% of the energy in machining
is converted into heat
 This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool‑chip
 The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained
as elastic energy in the chip
 Elastic energy is the potential mechanical
energy stored in the configuration of a material
or physical system as work is performed to
distort its volume or shape.
Cutting Temperatures are Important
High cutting temperatures
1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to
the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work material
Cutting Temperature
 Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook
Tool chip thermo from dimensional analysis using
couple junction experimental data for various work materials
Voltage using
Pottentio meter 0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T   
C  K 
Voltage can be
converted to where T = temperature rise at tool‑chip
temperature by interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting
using equations speed; t = chip thickness before cut; C =
o
for particular tool-
volumetric specific heat of work material; K =
work combination
thermal diffusivity of work material
Cutting Temperature
 Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
 Most frequently used technique is the
tool‑chip thermocouple
 Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the
speed‑temperature relationship to be of the
form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool‑chip interface
temperature, and v = cutting speed
Cutting Temperature
Temperature and
feed relation is not
as strong as with
.cutting speed
K and m depend
on the cutting
conditions and
.work material

Theory of Metal Machining

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Theory of Metal Machining

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Theory of Metal Machining

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

1. Overview of Machining Technology

Figure 21.2 (a) A cross‑sectional view of the machining process, (b)

Single point cutting tool removes material from a

Figure 21.3 Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,

Figure 21.3 (b) drilling,

Figure 21.3 (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.

Figure 21.5 Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.

Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting

Along a shear plane, bulk

 Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal

where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle

where  = shear strain,  = shear

Figure 21.8 More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear

Figure 21.9 Four types of

Problem during machining as

Figure 21.9 (c) continuous

Figure 21.10 Forces in

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction

where As = area of the shear plane

Shear stress = shear strength of work material

Figure 21.10 Forces

 To increase shear plane angle

Figure 21.12 Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher  with a

where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

where RMR = material removal rate

Units for specific energy are typically

Cutting tools sharp

You might also like