Debre Tabor University

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Instrumentation Engineering
Lecture Note
Getinet A.
[email protected]

1
 Signal conditioning
.

Input Output
Sensing
element Measured value
True value

Signal Signal Data

conditioning processing presentation
element element element

2
 Signal conditioning element:

Receives the output/SIGNAL from the sensing

element then it converts into a more suitable signal
for further processing, like a DC Voltage, DC
Current or frequency signal.
Example:
1) Deflection bridge which converts an impedance
change into voltage change
2) Amplifier which converts millivolts to volts
3) Oscillator which converts an impedance change
into variable frequency voltage.

3
 o Signal from detector/sensing stage has to be
modified (conditioned) in order to make it more
usable.

o This signals is then to be use in later stage of

system that may consist of processing elements.

o Proper selection of signal conditioning circuit can

improve the quality and system performance.

o Example of signal conditioning can be

amplification and filtering.

4
 Bridge Circuit
Resistive elements are some of the most common sensors.
They are inexpensive to manufacture and relatively easy to
interface with signal conditioning circuits.
Resistive elements can be made sensitive to temperature,
strain (by pressure or by flex), and light.
Using these basic elements, many complex physical
phenomena can be measured; such as fluid or mass flow
(by sensing the temperature difference between two
calibrated resistances) and dew-point humidity (by
measuring two different temperature points).
Sensor elements resistances can range from less than 100Ω
to several hundred kΩ, depending on the sensor design and
the physical environment to be measured.

5
6
7
 Amplification
 Increase the level of input signal to better suit
further processing.
 Improve the sensitivity and resolution of the
measurement.

Filtering
 Reject useless noise within certain frequency range.
 Prevent signal aliasing and distortion.

8
 Amplifier
o Required in the system to improve the signal
strength which is typically in the low level range of
less than a few mV.
o In some cases, amplifiers is necessary in providing
impedance matching and isolation.
o One of the very known important amplifier is the
operational amplifiers

9
 Operational amplifier (OP Amp)
o An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-
gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input
and, usually, a single-ended output.

o An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically

hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage
difference between its input terminals.

o Can be used to performs an important functions for signal

conditioning and processing like isolation, addition,
inversion, multiplication, subtraction and division.

o Other mathematical operations can be also perform such as

integration and differentiation.
10
11
 Operational Amplifier Notation and Parameter

The circuit symbol for an op-amp is

shown, where:
V+ : non-inverting input
V- : inverting input
Vout : output
Vs+ : positive power supply
Vs- : negative power supply

Gain, A = Vout/Vin where Vin = V+ - V-

Gain (dB), AdB = 20 log (Vout/Vin)

12
 Operational Amplifier Notation and Parameter – Input
Parameters
Input Offset Voltage
Voltage that must be applied to one of the input pins in order to
give zero output voltage.

Input Offset Current

Differences of two input bias current when the output voltage is
zero.
Input Bias Current
Average of both current flowing into both of the inputs.

Input Resistance
Resistance of the operational amplifier at either input when the
other grounded.

Input Voltage Range

13 Voltage that common to both inputs and ground.
14
 Output parameter
Output Short Circuit Current
Maximum output current that the operational
amplifier can deliver to the load.

Output Voltage Swing

Maximum output voltage (peak) that the operational
amplifier can give without distortion or clipping.
This depends on the load resistance.

Output Resistance
Resistance at the operational amplifier’s output.
15
16
 Ideal operational amplifier
oCharacteristics of ideal operational amplifier can be
listed as follows:
 Infinite input impedance
 Zero output impedance
 Infinite open loop gain
 Infinite bandwidth, slew rate and CMRR
oFor ideal operational amplifier the output voltage is zero
whenever there is equal voltage is applied to both of its
inputs.

17
 Types of Operational Amplifier circuits

Inverting Amplifier
Non-Inverting Amplifier
Differential Amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifier

18
 Inverting amplifier
o R2 is used to feedback
the output to the
inverting input, Vin
o R1 is the impedance
connected to Vin.

o This connection is known as summing point

o Sum of current at summing point must be zero;
I1  I 2  0
o Thus, Ohm’s law;
Vin Vout
 0
R1 R2
R2
Vout   Vin
19 R1
 Inverting Amplifier – Summing
amplifier
o Modification of the
inverting amplifier.

o Used as an summing
amplifier, that sum two
or more input voltages.

o The output voltage TF;

 R2 R2 
Vout    V1  V2 
 R1 R3 
20
 The most common circuit used for signal
conditioning is the inverting amplifier circuit as
shown above, this amplifier was first used when op-
amps only had one input, the inverting (-) input.
The voltage gain of this amplifier is (-R2/R1) x Vin
.

Thus the level of sensor outputs can be matched to

the level necessary for the data acquisition system.
The input impedance is approximately ∞ and the
output impedance is nearly zero.

Thus, this circuit provides impedance transformation

between the sensor and the data acquisition system.
21
 It is important to remember that the voltage swing of
the output of the amplifier is limited by the
amplifier's power supply as shown in Figure below,
In this example, the power supply is +/- 13V. When
the amplifier output exceeds this level, the output is
``clipped''.

22
 Non Inverting Amplifier

o Assume again, voltage

at summing point, S is
zero;I1  I 2  0

o And from Ohm’s law;

Vin Vout  Vin
 0
R1 R2

o Solving for Vout;

 R2 
Vout  1   Vin
23
 R1 
 Another commonly used amplifier configuration is shown
below.
The gain of this circuit is given as 1+(R2/R1).
The input impedance is nearly infinite (limited only by the
op-amp's input impedance) and the output impedance is
nearly zero.
The circuit is ideal for sensors that have a high source
impedance and thus would be affected by the current
draw of the data acquisition system.
  

24
 Voltage Follower

o Unity gain
o High impedance
o Vin = Vout
o Function: an impedance transformer
in the sense of converting a voltage
at high impedance to the same
voltage at low impedance.

25
 Differential Amplifier
o The op-amp can also be used to subtract
two signals.
o This circuit is commonly used to remove
unwanted DC offset.
o It can also be used to remove differences
in the ground potential of the sensor and
the ground potential of the data
acquisition circuitry (so-called ground
loops).
oThe output of this circuit is;
Vo  Ad (V2  V1 )
oWhere Ad is the differential op amp gain.
oThus V2 can be the output of the sensor and V1
can be the signal that is to be removed.
26
 CMMR Deferential Amplifier
o The common-mode input voltage is the average of voltage
applied to the two terminals;
V V
Vcm  1 2
2
o The CMMR for of a differential amplifier is defined as the
ratio of the differential gain to the common-mode gain;
A
CMMR 
Acm
o CMR is the expression of CMMR in dB;
CMR  20 log10 (CMMR)
o The larger the dB number, the better the differential
amplifier. Typical values of CMR range from 60 ~ 100 dB.

27
 Instrumentation Amplifier
Dedicated differential amplifier with very high input
impedance.

High common mode rejection features make

instrumentation amplifier useful in recovering small
signals hidden in large common mode offsets and noise.

Instrumentation amplifier is a close loop devices with

certain value of gain.

Can be optimised as signal conditioner for low level

signals (DC) in high noise environments.

28
 Instrumentation amplifier is divided into two stages;
 first stage give a very high input impedance to both of
input signals and with single resistor gain setting,
 second stage is a differential amplifier with the
negative feedback, ground connections and output are
all taken out.
Input stage consists of two matched operational
amplifiers.

29
 First Stage
 Both of input signals is applied to
the noninverting input terminal
of the operational amplifiers.
 The operational amplifier are
configured as voltage follower
which give the instrumentation
amplifier a very high input
impedance.
 Rg is a gain setting resistor in the
 2R 
following
vo   formulae
v 2  v1  1  for
 Rg 
computing vo: 
 From the equation, the smaller the value of Rg, the
larger the output voltage vo. It is clear that Rg can be
30
used in setting the gain of this first stage.
 Second Stage

 The second stage of the

instrumentation amplifier
is a differential amplifier
with unity gain.
 The full
instrumentation
amplifier circuit uses
three operational
amplifiers.
 Hence it is called three
amplifier configuration.
31
 Important features of instrumentation
amplifier:
 Differential input capability with high gain
common mode rejection.
 Selectable gain with high gain accuracy and
linearity.
 High stability of gain with low temperature
coefficient.
 Low DC offset and drift errors referred to
input.
 Low output impedance.

32
 Filter
Filter is the network used to attenuate certain frequencies but
allow others without attenuation.
Consist at least one pass band, which is a band of frequencies
that the output is approximately equal to input and
attenuation band that the output is equal to zero.
Cut-off frequencies is the frequencies that separate the
various pass and attenuation bands.
Important characteristic of filter networks is its construction
make use of purely reactive elements.
Two types of filter:
 Passive Filters
33  Active Filters
 Types of Filters
 Passive filters only use passive circuit component such as
resistors, capacitors and inductors.
 Active filters use active elements like operational amplifiers
in addition to passive elements like resistance, capacitance
and inductance.
 Both of passive and active filters can be classified as follows:
a) Low Pass Filter: deliver low frequencies and eliminate
high frequencies
b) High Pass Filter: send on high frequencies and reject low
frequencies
c) Band Pass Filter: pass some particular range of
frequencies, discard other frequencies outside that band
d) Band Stop Filter: stop a range of frequencies and pass all
34 other frequencies
35
 Passive Filter - Low Pass Filter
oBlocks high frequencies
and passes low frequencies.
oIdeal LPF: signals above
cut-off frequency, fc are
simply rejected.
oIn terms of resistor and
capacitor, cut-off oAt low frequencies, the
capacitive reactance is very
frequency,f fc is given by:
1
c
2 RC
high, therefore the capacitor
circuit acts like an open
oGain is given by; circuit. These condition gives
1 oAt very high frequencies, the
ALPF 
1   f fc 
2
capacitive reactance is very
low therefore Vout is very
36
small compared to Vin.
 Passive Filter – High Pass Filter
oPasses high frequencies
and blocks/rejects low
frequencies..
oIdeal HPF: signals below
cut-off frequency, fc are
simply rejected.
oIn terms of resistor and oAt low frequencies, the
capacitor, cut-off gain is small, therefore
frequency, fcf is given
1 by: Vout is small compared to
c
2 RC Vin.
oGain is given by; oAs the frequencies goes
AHPF 
 f fc  high the gain approaches
 c unity.
2
37 1  f f
 Passive Filter – Band Pass Filter
oBlocks frequencies below a
low limit and above a high
limit, while passing
frequencies between the limits.
oCan be constructed by
cascading LPF and HPF.
oAt frequencies below the pass
band, BPF behave like HPF oLower cut-off freq.;
while above the pass band 1
f clower 
frequencies the BPF acts like 2 R2C 2
LPF.
oIn pass band, the BPF circuit is oUpper cut-off freq.;
almost as a resistive network. 1
f cupper 
oThus, gain is given
A 
R2 by; 2 R1C1
BPF
38
R1  R2
 Passive Filter – Band Stop Filter

1
fo 
2 RC

oBlocks a specific range of frequencies.

oCam be realized. but not very affective one, simple RC
combination also known as notch filter.
oThe circuit is called twin-T filter.
oTwin T BSF; At the very low and high frequencies the
gain is almost unity, but between the two there is a
frequency where the gain become zero.
39
oThe frequency is known as Notch Frequency, fo.
 Active Filter
oGenerally the impedances are used in the inverting
amplifiers using operational amplifiers.
oBasic relationship can be used to obtain the desired
filter sections is as follows (in the case of inverting
amplifiers). Vo Z f

V1 Z1

oThe voltage can also be amplified.

40
 Active filters have three main advantages over passive
filters:
o Inductors can be avoided. Passive filters without inductors
cannot obtain a high Q (low damping), but with them are often
large and expensive (at low frequencies), may have significant
internal resistance, and may pick up surrounding electromagnetic
signals.
o The shape of the response, the Q (Quality factor), and the tuned
frequency can often be set easily by varying resistors, in some
filters one parameter can be adjusted without affecting the others.
Variable inductances for low frequency filters are not practical.
o The amplifier powering the filter can be used to buffer the filter
from the electronic components it drives or is fed from,
variations in which could otherwise significantly affect the shape
of the frequency response.
41