Semester 2, 2019

Eceg4323
Instrumentation Engineering
Lect 1 (Review of Basic Instrumentation)

Department of Electrical and computer Engineering

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 Outline

• General Measurement System

• Purpose and performance of measurement systems
• Instrumentation
• Structure of measurement systems
• Examples of measurement systems

• Static Characteristics of Measurement

System Elements
• Systematic characteristics

• Generalized model of a system element

 General Measurement System

Purpose and performance of

measurement systems
Definition
• Process: a system which
generates information measurement system is to link the
observer to the process

observer as a person who needs this

information from the process.
 Cont’d
An example is ruler
Instrumentation the measurand is the length of
some object
• is the use of measuring
the measurement is the
instruments to monitor and
number of units (meters,
control a process.
inches, etc.) that represent
the length
• An instrument is a device that
measures a physical quantity
and transforms a physical
variable of interest (the
measurand ) into a form that is
suitable for recording (the
The measurement to have consistent
measurement)
meaning, it is necessary to employ a
standard system of units
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 Simple Instrument Model

Common physical variables Typical signal variables

• Force • Voltage
• Length • Current
• Temperature • Displacement – spring of newtonmeter
• Acceleration • Light – change in intensity
• Velocity
• Pressure
• Frequency
• Capacity
• Resistance
• Time
•…  
 Cont’d
“A control and instrumentation engineer (C&I engineer) is responsible for
designing, developing, installing, managing and/or maintaining equipment
which is used to monitor and control engineering systems, machinery and
processes”

“C&I engineers make sure that these systems and processes operate
effectively, efficiently and safely”

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 Cont’d
• Structure of measurement systems

input Signal conditioning

Sensing element
True Value element

• the first element Takes the output of the sensing element

• it is in contact and converts it into a form more
with the input suitable for further processing
• draws energy
output Data presentation Signal processing
Measured Value element element

presents the measured value Takes the output of the conditioning

in a form which can be easily element and converts it into a form
recognized by the observer more suitable for presentation
 Sensing Elements

 This is the front-end element which is in contact with the measurand

and its function is conversion of the non-electrical input variable to
proportional electrical variable output suitable for further conditioning
and processing in the subsequent electrical/electronic sub systems.

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Examples :
• Thermocouple produce millivolt of e.m.f. depends on
temperature
• Strain gauge produce resistance depends on mechanical
strain
• If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the
element in contact with the process is termed as the
primary sensing element, and the others called as
secondary sensing elements.

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 Signal conditioning element

• This takes the output of the sensing element and

converts it into a form more suitable for further
processing, usually a DC voltage, DC current or
frequency signal.
Examples :
• Deflection bridge which converts an impedance
change into a voltage change
• Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts
• Oscillator which converts an impedance change
into a variable frequency voltage.

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 Signal processing element

• This takes the output of the conditioning element

and converts it into a form more suitable for
presentation.
Examples :
• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which
converts a voltage into a digital form for input to
a computer
• Computer which calculates the measured
value of the variable from the incoming
digital data.
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 Data presentation element

• This presents the measured value in a form

which can be easily recognized by the
observer.
• Examples :
• Simple pointer–scale indicator
• Chart recorder
• Alphanumeric display
• Visual display unit (VDU).

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 Examples of measurement systems

Figure below shows a temperature system with a

thermocouple sensing element; this gives a millivolt
output.
• Signal conditioning consists of a circuit to compensate
for changes in reference junction temperature, and an
amplifier.
• The voltage signal is converted into digital form using
an analogue-to-digital converter
• the computer corrects for sensor non-linearity, and the
measured value is displayed on a VDU.

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14
 Cont’d

• Examples of measurement systems

• electromechanical
generator- electrical power comparator
from mechanical energy application which
• generate voltage roughly switches the output
proportional to shaft speed. negative when the
very precise voltages for input passes upward
certain ranges of shaft through a positive
reference voltage.
 Cont’d
• Pulse oximeter

910 nm(INFRARED)
Diode Power
Control and
660 nm(RED) Switching

Digital Display
ADC Microprocessor SpO2
Heart Rate

Sensing element
Data presentation element
Signal conditioning element Signal processing element

Photo Diodes

semiconductor device that

converts light into current.
 Generalized model of a
system element
•• steady-state
  output O of the Block diagram symbols
element is in general given by

General model of element.

 Reference

• J.P. Bentley, Principles of

Measurement Systems
 Assignment I
• Find a real world problem and draw the Structure of measurement
system of your solution.
• Your structure of measurement system should include the preferred
– Sensing element and the reason,
– Signal conditioning element
– Signal processing element
– Data presentation element
• You should also include your reason of selecting appropriate
materials
• Due date:-
After finishing chapter III
• The assignment is given in group of five
Thank you
 Characteristics of measurement systems

• To choose the instrument, most suited to a particular

measurement application, we have to know the system
characteristics.
• The performance characteristics may be broadly divided
into two groups, namely ‘static’ and ‘dynamic’
characteristics.
• Static characteristics
• the performance criteria for the measurement of
quantities that remain constant, or vary only quite
slowly.
• Dynamic characteristics
• the relationship between the system input and output
when the measured quantity (measurand) is varying
rapidly.
 Static Characteristics
• Range and Span.
• Accuracy.
• Precision.
• Linearity.
• Hysteresis
• Resolution, threshold.

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ACCURACY

– Accuracy is the ability of an instrument to show the

exact reading.
– Always related to the extent of the wrong reading/non
accuracy.
– Normally shown in percentage of error which of the full
scale reading percentage.
– Accuracy can be improved by calibration.
 PRECISION

• Defined as the capability of an instrument to show the

same reading when used each time (reproducibility of the
instrument).
• An equipment which is precise is not necessarily
accurate.
Example : XXX
XXX
X : result
Centre circle : true value

Low accuracy, high precision

XXX
XXXX
XXX
X X

High accuracy, high precision x

x

Low accuracy, low precision

 Accuracy and precision
• If your instrument is accurate , has a good accuracy, it is also
precise ( had a good precision).
• But your instrument can be precise but the accuracy can be
low, because some systematic error could be present

Accuracy Precission

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 Range

• The input range defines the minimum and maximum value

of the variable to measure.
• The output rage defines the minimum and maximum value
of the signal given by the transducer.
• Assume a temperature transducer which temperature range
is from 100°C to 250°C and the output range is given from
4 to 10 mV.
 Span

• The input span is the maximum change of the input and the
output span is the maximum change of the output.
• Input span:
I MAX  I MIN

• Output span:
 LINEARITY

• Maximum deviation from linear relation between input and

output.
• The output of an instrument has to be linearly
proportionate to the measured quantity.
• Normally shown in the form of full scale percentage (%
fs).
• The graph shows the output reading of an instrument when
a few input readings are entered.
• Linearity = maximum deviation from the reading of x and
the straight line.
 Linearity

Output
Readings

Measured Quantity
 Linearity

• It is normally desirable that

the output reading of an Omax
instrument is linearly
proportional to the quantity
being measured.
• An instrument is considered if
the relationship between
output and input can be fitted Omin
in a line. Imin Imax
 OMAX  OMIN 
O  OMIN     I  I MIN 
 I MAX  I MIN 
 DEAD SPACE / DEAD BAND

Output
Reading

- +

Measured
Variables

Dead Space

• Defined as the range of input reading when there is no change

in output (unresponsive system).
Resolution
• The smallest change in input reading that can be traced
accurately.
• Given in the form ‘% of full scale (% fs)’.
• Available in digital instrumentation.

Bias
 It is the constant error which exists over the full range of
measurement of an instrument.
 Such a bias can be completely eliminated by calibration
Stability
 The ability of an instrument to retain its performance
throughout its specified operating life and the storage life
is defined as its stability.
Tolerance
 The maximum allowable error in the measurement is
specified interms of some value which is called tolerance
 Indicates the maximum allowable deviation of a
manufactured component from a specified value
Range of span
 The minimum and maximum values of a quantity for
which an instrument is designed to measure is called its
range of span
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 Hysteresis

• Careful observation of the output/input relationship of a

block will sometimes reveal different results as the signals
vary in direction of the movement.
• Mechanical systems will often show a small difference in
length as the direction of the applied force is reversed.
• The same effect arises as a magnetic field is reversed in a
magnetic material.
• This characteristic is called hysteresis
Hysteresis

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 Error
 The most important static characteristics of an instrument is
its accuracy, which is generally expressed in terms of the
error called static error.
 The algebraic between the indicated value/measured value
and the true value of the quantity to be measured is called an
error.
 Mathematically it can be expressed as:
e  At  Am
where e = Error
A m = Measured value of the quantity
A t = true value of the quantity

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• Mathematically the relative error can be expresses as:
Absolute error At  Am
er  
True Value At
The percentage relative error is expressed as
At  Am
%e  x100
At
From the relative percentage error, the accuracy can be mathematically expressed as
At  Am
A  1  er  1 
At
The percentage accuracy is
a  Ax100%

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• Error as a percentage of full scale reading
At  Am
 x100
f .s.d
where f.s.d = full scale defelction
Sensitivity
 Denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which
the instrument responds
 The ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a
change in the value of the quantity to be measured

Change in output
Sensitivity 
change in input

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 Sensitivity

Most sensitive

Variation of the physical variables