EMBANKMENT DAMS

LECTURE
Dam
 Barrier that stores water at two levels.
 The primary purpose of dam is to store water

whenever available in plenty for use during

scarcity.
 Built across rivers
 Excess water is released to river and useful

water is transferred through canals

Dams in general
o Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable
location across a river valley to store flowing
water.
o Store /control flow to:
o Maximize the benefit
o Minimize the problem
o Storage of water is utilized for following
objectives:
o Hydropower
o Irrigation
o Water supply
o Drought and flood control
o For navigational
o Other like develop fisheries, recreation …
 Plan of Dam
Upstream

Abutment Downstream

Left Bank Canal

Main River Course

Reservoir

Right bank Canal

Abutment
Component parts
 Dam: is either a man made or animal (beaver
may be where man learn damming) made
structure across a river to impound water on
the upstream called a reservoir.

Abutments
Face
Crest
Toe
Outlet
spillway

EIT- HU MZ 2005 ET 01/24/2021

Classification of Dams

 Based on Size
 Based on function
 Based on material used
Classification based on Purpose
 Hydro-electric dam
 Irrigation dam
 Water supply dam for city for the purposes of
Single purpose

drinking water, recreation, navigation throgth

canals, industrial use.
 Flood Control
 Habitat dam for fishes & wild life
 Effluent containing dams from industry, mine,
factory etc.
 Multi-purpose dam: designed for serving
combination two or more of above purpose
at a time
Classification based on Material of
construction
concret

◦ Gravity
◦ Buttress
◦ Arch
e

◦ RCC
◦ Masonry
Embankment

◦ Earth Dam
◦ Rock fill Dam
◦ Composite Dam

 Based on service time

◦ Permanent
◦ temporary
 Gravity Dam Timber Dam

San Luis Dam near Los Bonos,

Steel Dam
California – an Embankment
Dam
Cofferdam

Hoover Arch Dam

Timber Dam

Steel Dam
 Rockfill Dam

Arch Dam

Solid Gravity Dam

Combined Earth & Rockfill Dam

Earth Dam
Embankment Dams
 Are
classified as non-rigid type of
dam.
 Areconstructed from fragmented
natural materials;
◦ excavated or obtained close to the dam site,
◦ placed without the addition of any binding
agent, and
◦ compacted using high capacity mechanical
plant.

14
Embankment Dams
 Strength and stability derived from:
◦ their weight [inertia],
◦ internal friction, and
◦ mutual attraction of particles.
 Relative to concrete dams,
◦ embankment dams offer more flexibility;
and
◦ can deform slightly to conform to deflection
of the foundation without failure.

15
Embankment dam
(construction material)

1. Earth fill Embankment dams:

When compacted soils, i.e. clays/silts & sands,
account for over 50% of the placed volume of material.

2. Rock fill Embankment dams:

if compacted rock particles larger than a man can
easily lift, i.e. coarse grained frictional material,
accounts for over 50% of the placed volume of
materials.

16
 Classification ctd.

Earth fill Embankment dams:

based on construction method earth dams are divided
into:

1.Rolled fill dam, which could further be divided

into;
I. Homogeneous type dams
II. Zoned type dams
III. Diaphragm type dams

2.Hydraulic fill dam

3.Semi-hydraulic fill dam

17
Feature
 Homogeneous :
◦ Seepage problem
◦ Need huge section to solve seepage
◦ Or internal/toe drainage filter
 Diaphragm

◦ Thin core less than 10m

 Zoned

◦ Thick core material (silt or clay)

Typical section of earth dam
Classification cont.
 Rock fill
◦ Classified in to few groups based on the
configuration of dam section as:
 Central core
 Inclined core
 Facing
◦ The main body of rock fill dams, which should have
 a structural resistance against failure,
 consists of rock fill shell and transition zones,
core and facing zones have a role to minimize
leakage through embankment
Classification cont.
 Rock fill

◦ Filter zone should be provided in any type of rock fill dams

to prevent loss of soil particles through embankment.
◦ In earth fill dams, on the other hand, the dam body is the
only one which should have both structural and seepage
resistance against failure with a provided drainage
facilities.
◦ They have characteristics between earth fill and gravity
dams;-
 w.r.t. flexibility,
 foundation requirement,
 they demand of base width (use steeper slope reduce
wider base width requirement)
Rock-fill dams

 Are embankments of loose rock with either a

watertight upstream face of concrete slabs or
timber or a watertight core.
 Where suitable rock is at hand, a minimum of
transportation of materials can be realized with this
type.
 Resist damage from earthquakes quite well.
ROCK FILL DAM SECTIONS
Composite Dams

 Not only different types of dam can be built in the

same valley, but the same dam can be of different
types owing to the varying geological and
topographical features of the dam site.
 Many buttress dams also join up with gravity mass
concrete dams at their haunches at the sides of the
valley, and again at the centre have a mass concrete
gravity dam to form a suitable overflow or spillway.
Composite Dams
Merits of Embankment Dams
 Suitability to different site conditions such as wide
valleys, flatter sided gorges, etc.
 Adaptability to a broad range of foundation condition
such as rock and pervious soil formation,
 use of natural materials,
 Extreme flexibility to accommodate different fill
materials,
 Highly mechanized and effectively continuous
construction process,
 Appreciable accommodation of settlement-
deformation without risk of serious cracking and
possible failure.
26
Demerits of Embankment Dams

 Inherently susceptible to damage or

destruction by overtopping,
 Necessity of separate spillway structure,
 Vulnerability to concealed leakage and
internal erosion in dam or foundation.

27
 Lec 3 Key and
Appartunace parts
Embankment dam
construction
Elements of Embankment Dam
Every embankment dam consists of
 Three basic components
◦ Foundation,
◦ Core, and
◦ Shell.
 And a number of appurtenances such as;
◦ Transition filter,
◦ Toe drain,
◦ Riprap,
◦ Internal drain,
◦ Sod/grass, etc. which enable the basic
components to function efficiently

29
Key and appurtenances elements
Every embankment dam consists of three basic components plus a number
of appurtenances which enable the basic components to function efficiently.
Key elements
Core or membrane

◦ The primary purpose of the core or membrane is to

hold back free water flow.
◦ It may be placed at the center or upstream from the
center, or on the upstream face (in the case of
certain rock fill dams).
◦ It may extended down into the foundation to
impervious layer(termed cut-off)
Key elements
Core material
 Earth, concrete or masonry, steel sheeting, etc.
 Lack of flexibility of concrete and masonry
make them undesirable.
 An earth core (when suitable material is
available) is usually cheaper and more water
tight than any other type.
 Suitability of earth core depends on the
property of the available soil.
Key elements

Table 1: Permeability of different soil types

Permeability Typical soil Value as core

coefficient
2 – 0.002 Sand Considerable leakage

0.002 – 0.0002 Silty clay Usable with good control if

some leakage is tolerable
0.0002 – 0.000006 Silts Little leakage if well
compacted
≤ 0.000006 Silty clay, Impervious
clay
 Key elements
 A core should not be composed of silt which tends to swell upon
saturation.
 To avoid swelling tendencies, the elasticity index should not exceed 30.
 Water content: - as high as possible consistent with the above
requirements.
Core thickness: -
 to control erosion
 to provide good compaction a minimum core thickness in meters is given
by
b = 6 + 0.1Δh (clay)
b = 6 + 0.3Δh (silt)
Where: Δh = head difference at that point;
b = core width at that point.
Key elements

Core fill should have low permeability and ideally be of

intermediate to high plasticity to accommodate deformation

without risk of cracking.

It is not necessary to have high shear strength. The most

suitable soils have clay contents in excess of 25 – 30%,

although clayey sands and silt can also be utilized.

The core is the key element in an embankment and the most

demanding in terms of material characteristics and uniformity.

Table 7.1 The main characteristics of the more important groups
of soils suitable for rolled cores are shown

Note: Ip = plasticity index, ρd = dry density, uw = pore water pressure

Key elements
Table 7.2 Illustrative engineering properties for compacted earth fills
Key elements
Shell
 The purpose of shell
 to provide structural support for the core and
 to distribute the loads over the foundation.
 The shell also acts as foundation for most of the
appurtenances.
 Sometimes the core and shell of a dam are
constructed of the same material (homogenous
dam).
shell
 Availability and strength are the requirements for selection.
 Strength: - the strength for the upstream side should be
that at the inundated condition. The same strength should
be used for the downstream face which is below the
maximum phreatic line.
 Permeability: - high permeability is desirable from the
standpoint of pressure buildup during construction and
stability during sudden drawdown.
Shell
 Slopes: - shell slopes are based on stability
analysis.
 When the stability is insufficient,
improvements are possible by adopting
◦ Flatter slopes;
◦ Increasing strength through high density;
◦ Treatment for weak foundation;
◦ . Drainage of the foundation and embankment.
Table 2: Tentative slopes of shoulder for different embankment
materials

Soil type Upstream Downstream

Gravel, sandy gravel with 2.5H: 1V 2.0H : 1V

core
Clean sand with core 3.0H: 1V 2.5H : 1V

Low density silt, 3.5H: 1V 3.0H : 1V

micaceous silt
Low plasticity clay 3.0H: 1V 2.5H : 1V
Composite slopes:
 are used for large dams.
◦ They can be found in two ways:
1.a series of straight slopes or
2.a constant slope with berms.
 A berm is a level surface on the slope that can serve the
following purposes
◦ 1. Increases slope stability by increasing dam width;

◦ 2. Breaks the continuous downstream slope to reduce surface

erosion
◦ 3. Provides level surface for maintenance operations, roads, etc.
 Berm is also used at the bottom of a zone of riprap to
provide supporting shoulder
Height of dam
 Required height of an embankment dam is the vertical

distance from the foundation to the water surface in

the reservoir,
 when the spillway is discharging at design capacity,

plus a free board allowance.

◦ Free Board = maximum wave run-up height + allowance for

settlement + allowance for splash

◦ Maximum wave run-up height = 4hw/3

◦ Where: hw = effective wave height (with expectancy of 1%)

wave height
Table : Wave run-up to maximum wave height ratio on slopes

Slope Ratio of run-up to maximum wave height

Smooth Surface Riprap surface

1.5H : 1V 2.5 1.6
1H : 1V 2.0 1.3

Maximum vertical height of run-up = Expected wave height * appropriate

factor from Table 5.3
Settlement allowance: the following may be used as guide.
For foundation: 1% of height of dam
For embankment: 1-2% of height of embankment
Splash allowance could be taken 0.30 – 0.50m
Top Width

 should be sufficient to keep the phreatic line

with in the dam when the reservoir is full
 should be sufficient to withstand wave action
and earthquake shock
 has to satisfy secondary requirements such
as minimum roadway width.
Appurtenances
 Transition filter: - it is provided between core and shell
to prevent migration of the core material into the pores
of the shell material.
 It is particularly needed between clay cores and rock and
gravel shells.
 The objective of transition filter
 to carry away seepage that has passed through the core
and cut-off and to prevent stratum of the upper part of
the downstream shell
 Toe drain: - it helps to prevent sloughing of the
downstream face as a result of rain water or seepage
saturation.
 In small dams, the toe drain serves also as internal drain.
 In large dams with pervious foundation, the toe drain
and the internal drain are sometimes combined.
 Drains need protective filter (inverted filter) to prevent
clogging of the drain.
 Internal drains: - they are essential in large dams where
the d/s shell is not so pervious
Apurtunance
 Riprap: -

◦ required to cover the upstream or downstream face.

◦ Normally riprap extended from above the maximum

water level to just below the minimum water level.

Appurtenances

 Sod: - required on the downstream face to prevent

rain wash.
 For economic reasons, the material available at the
particular site has to be employed as much as
possible for the construction of the earth dam and
the quantity of imported material should be
minimized.
Important soil properties
Pertinent to embankment dams
Important soil properties
 Shearing strength:
◦ According to Coulombs’ law
◦ It is the resistance to shear force
◦ Shearing strength (Ʈf ) should be greater than exerted
external force for stability
◦ According to Coulomb
 (Ʈf ) =f(cohesion, internal friction)
 f  c   ' tan  (kN / m ) 2

  Ʈf =shearing strength of the soil, σ’ =effective inter granular

compressive stress, ϕ=angle of internal friction, c=cohesive
force
  
 Φ,c=f(soil moisture and soil type)
Shearing strength
 The shearing strength is determined from
 Direct shear test
 Triaxial test
 From direct shear test for given loading condition following
graph is developed
N Load (N)
 f  c   ' tan  (kN / m 2

Ʈf P

Φ
σ=N/A
σ
Ʈ=P/A
 The internal friction angle is given by:
  tan 1 ( /  )
Soil properties cont.
 Soil properties (density)
 Void ratio (e)=Volume of void/Volume of soil

e =Vv/Vs
 Porosity (n )= Volume of void/total volume

n = Vv/V=Vv/(Vv+Vs)

n = (Vv/Vs)/(Vv/Vs + Vs/Vs)=e/(1+e)

e = n/(1-n)
 water content of soil (w)=mass of moisture in soil/mass of solids

mass
Soil density
 Ww 
Ws 1  
 Ws 
 
 Vv 
Vs1  
 Vs 
Ws / Vs    Ss. w

 Ww 
 1  1 w 
  Ss. w 
Ws Ws
    
Vs  1  Vv   1 e 
 
 Vs 
1  w 
  Ss. w   , for dry soil , w  0
 1 e 
Ss. w
 dry 
1 e
   dry (1  w)
Degree of saturation
 Degree of saturation (S):
S=Vol. water/Vol. void
e= Vv/Vs=[Vv/Vs]*[Vw/Vw]
e =[Vv/Vw]*[Vw/Vs]
e =1/S[(Mw/yw)/(Ms/Ss.yw)]
e = 1/S[w.Ss)
e = wSs/S
For saturated soil S=1
e = wSs
w = e/Ss
Soil property (density) cont.
 For unit weight of saturated weight (Ysat)

S s . w (1  w)
 
1  e 
S s . w 1  e / S s   w  S s  e 
 sat  
1 e 1 e

submerged unit weight ( sub )

 S s  1
 sub   sat   w  w 
 1 e 
Pore pressure
 Soil do have a pore which fully or partially filled by
water
 Soil below water table (saturated) subjected to
hydrostatic uplift
 At any level the stress (σ) due load of soil is partly
supported by inter-granular pressure pore force (U)
 σ’ = σ-u

 σ’ =γsat(h-h’)+Ydryh’, where u=Yw(h-h’)

Pore pressure
 The shearing strength is given by

 f  c   ' tan  ( kN / m 2
 f  c     u  tan 

 This indicates the effect of pore pressure on shearing

strength of a soil
 The stability of dam against shear failure is checked when
max pore pressure is present
Consolidation
Consolidation
 In compressible soil with low permeability the
excess pore pressure is sever during construction
itself
 appreciable consolidation takes place after
construction (need high compaction and follow up
during construction)
 If excess pore pressure get high, need to stop
construction for a while
 Lecture 3
Failures in embankment
Causes of Failure of Embankment dams

 Embankment dams, like any other engineering structure,

may fail due to
 improper design,
 faulty constructions,
 lack of maintenance, etc.
 Generally, causes of failure are grouped into three
classes:
 Hydraulic failure,
 Seepage failure and
 Structural failure.
Hydraulic failures:
 About 40% of earth dam
failures have been attributed
to these causes due to;
◦ Overtopping. Occurs when the
design flood is less than the
coming flood. Spillway and
outlet capacity must be
sufficient to prevent
overtopping. Freeboard should
also be sufficient to prevent
overtopping by wave action.
Piping failure proces
Hydraulic failures
 Erosion of upstream faces. Wind waves of water
developed due to wind near the top water tray to notch-
out the soil from u/s face and may even sometimes cause
the slip of the u/s slope. upstream slope pitching or rip
rap should be applied.
 Erosion of downstream face by gully formation. Heavy
rains falling directly over d/s face and the erosive action
of the moving water may lead to the formation of gullies
on the d/s face, ultimately leading to the dam failure.
 Cracking due to frost action. Frost in the upper portion of
dam may cause heaving of soil with dangerous seepage.
Consequently failure. Provide and additional free board
allowance up to a maximum of say 1.5m may be provided
Seepage failures
 Seepage failure: (>30%)
 Piping through the foundation
 Piping through dam body
 Sloughing of d/s toe
◦ controlled seepage or limited
uniform seepage is inevitable in all
embankments and it does not
produce any harm.
◦ However, uncontrolled or
concentrated seepage through the
dam or the foundation may lead to
piping (the progressive erosion and
subsequent removal of soil grains
from within the body of the dam or
the foundation of the dam)
◦ sloughing (the progressive removal
of soil from the wet d/s face) and
the subsequent failure of the dam.
Seepage failure process
Structural failure
 Structural failure (25%)
◦ It is caused by shear failure causing slide
◦ Foundation sliding : dam may slide over soft foundation (silt,
clay, ) top of dam crack and subside & lower part move out ward
(this is b/c excessive pore pressure in confined seam of silt /
sand and artesian pressure in abutment reduce shearing
strength of soil
◦ Slide in embankment: steep slope to cause sliding,
 Critical cases full reservoir, d/s face failure and sudden drawdown of
reservoir u/s
Structural failure
 During construction
• Unstable slope
• Heavy rainfall that washes the d/s face
• Weak foundation
 After construction
• Failure of u/s face due to sudden drawdown
• Failure of d/s when the reservoir is full
• Overtopping
• Seepage failure.
Foundation seepage control:
◦seepage flows and pressure within the foundation are controlled by cut-offs and by
drainage.
◦ Cut-offs is impervious barriers which function as extensions of the embankments
core into foundation.
The cut-offs are generally two types:
1. Fully penetrating cut-off: penetrate to impervious strata
2. Partially penetrating cut-off: terminate where the head loss across the cut-off is
sufficient to effect the required degree of control
Upstream face protection: several options are available
for protection of the upstream face against wave erosion,
ranging from traditional stone pitching with grouted joints
through concrete facing slabs to the use of concrete block
work, rock armoring and riprap.
Structural failure
Embankments crest: the top width of larger earthen dam should be sufficient

to keep the seepage line well within the dam, when reservoir is full.

The crest should have a width of not less than 5m, and should carry a

surfaced and well-drained access road. The top width (W) of the earth dam

can be selected as per the following recommendation:

W=H/5 + 3 , For very low dams------------ 4.1

W =0.55√H + 0.2H, For dams lower than 30m ..4.2

W =(1.65 H +1.5) 1/3, For dams higher than 30m -4.3

Where: H is the height of the dam.

Problems related to embankment dams
 Lecture 4
Design of embankment dams
Important parts considerations
Preliminary section of earth dam
 It is usual practice to select a preliminary section of
the earth dam and check whether the section
satisfies all the criteria mentioned in the preceding
section. The preliminary section of the dam is
selected based on the experience,. considering
various factors as listed below
◦ (a) Foundation conditions
◦ (b) Availability of materials
◦ (c) Physical properties of various materials
◦ (d) Methods of construction and the construction control
◦ (e) Diversion methods and construction schedule
◦ (f) Climatic conditions affecting the placement moisture
control and subsequent moisture changes
◦ (g) Safety factors with respect to seepage
◦ (h) Safety factors with respect to stability
Preliminary section of earth dam
 After the consideration of the above factors, a
preliminary section of the earth dam is
selected.
 In the preliminary section, the following

parameters are decided.

(a) Crest width (b) Free board
(c) U/s and d/s slopes of the dam (d) Settlement
allowance
(e) Cutoff wall in the foundation (f) Impervious core
(g) Downstream drainage system (h) Provision of riprap
Preliminary section/parts
 U/S and D/S slopes
◦ IT depends on the foundation condition material of
construction, dam height, economy of construction
and stability
◦ u/s slopes of most earth dams vary from 2.5:1 to
4:1, and
◦ d/s slopes are generally between 2:1 and 3:1.
 Settlement allowance
◦ It will be up to 2% of the height and incase of big
dam 1% extra will be made as a longitudinal
chamber ( zero at abutment to max at center) for
seismic case
Preliminary section/parts
 U/S face protection (riprap)
 Usual type of surface protection for the upstream slope is stone riprap either dry
dumped or hand placed. When a thin layer is used, hand riprap may be more
economical than dumped riprap

◦ There are several empirical methods to find out the thickness of the riprap. One is to account
he wave height, embankment slope, weight of average size stone and its specific gravity.
◦ size of stones for hand placed riprap could be determined by:

◦ where dm = diameter of stone in meter, in the zone of maximum blow of the wave,
◦ γw = unit weight of water in t/m³
◦ γ = unit weight of stones in t/m³
◦ S = slope of embankment
◦ hw = height of wave in meter
◦ C = factor depending on the type of protection.
◦ - For hand placed riprap, C = 0.54
◦ - For rockfill or dumped riprap, C = 0.80
◦ Average size of stone required, dav = dm/0.85
Preliminary..
 Design of embankment dam
1. To determine the cross section /size
2. To analyze the stability
 The cross section is not formulated as in
case of gravity dam it rather depends on the
construction material and other related
factors
Design features of Emb. Dams
1. Zoning of shoulder fills (near by borrow pit,
make sufficient low permeable fill out of
available
2. Spillway location and capacity
3. Free board (have enough capacity f(peak flood))
4. Foundation & body seepage control
5. Provision of flat enough d/s and u/s slopes
6. Provision of 2-3% additional height for slow
consolidation
7. Upstream face protection
8. Proper drainage d/s of impervious core
(vertical/ chemminy or horizontal)
9. Embankment crest

81
Design features and practice
 The considerations summarized in previous Section have major
implications with regard to certain design features and good
construction practice.
 Some of the more important points are:

Zoning of shoulder fills

 The careful and correct zoning of the available materials is an

important aspect of embankment design.

The principles are:
1. The core width should be as great as is economically viable.

2. The downstream shoulder should be underlain by a drainage

blanket, or base drain, of free-draining material.
3. Finer shoulder material should be zoned closest to the core,
with an intervening vertical drainage zone connecting to the
base drain
Zoning
4. Shoulder zones should be of progressively coarser material as the
face slopes are approached.

5. Where a major change in the characteristics of material in

adjacent zones is unavoidable, interface effects should be eased
by the insertion of an intermediate or transition zone.
 The permeability increase toward the outer slopes,
 materials with a high degree of inherent stability being used to
enclose and support the less stable impervious core and filter.
 Pervious materials, if available, are generally placed in upstream
sections to permit rapid pore water pressure dissipation on rapid
drawdown
Zoning
 The stability of an embankment and its foundation is determined by their

collective ability to resist shear stresses.

 Embankments constructed with cohesive materials of low permeability generally

have slopes flatter than those used for zoned embankments, which have free-

draining
 Lower quality random fill materials may be satisfactorily employed in areas

within the dam profile where neither permeability nor shear strength is critical

and bulk and weight are the primary requirements.

 Examples include the placing of stabilizing fill at the toes of embankments on

low-strength foundations or so-called ‘random zones’ within the heart of either

shoulder.
General points regarding zoning and core

 A nominal hydraulic gradient through the core of the

order of 1.5–2.5 is satisfactory; a value greater than
3.5–4 is undesirable.
 Core geometry is not critical provided that the
upstream core slope is not such as to control overall
slope stability. It is preferable that the core be
approximately central and it can ease placing of the
downstream drain and transition/filter zones if that
face of the core is kept vertical.
 A compromise must be made between sophistication
of design and zoning and ease of construction.
 Internal zoning and associated specification
requirements should be kept as simple as possible.
Design features
 Spillway location: geotechnical and hydraulic design considerations require
that to minimize the risk of damage to the dam under flood conditions the

spillway and discharge channel are kept clear of the embankment.

 Freeboard: The provision necessary for long-term settlement within the
overall minimum freeboard is determined by the height of dam and the

depth of compressible foundation at any section.

 The overall minimum freeboard from spillway sill to dam crest should be at

least 1.5m on the smallest reservoir embankment, and it will be very much

greater for larger embankments and/or reservoir.

 The minimum height of freeboard for wave action is, generally, 1.5hw+other

allowances

Where; v is wind velocity (km/hr)/??????????????

Free board
Crest Width
 Should not be less than 4 m for maintenance purposes.
However, the width depends on several considerations such as
(i) Nature of embankment material and minimum allowable percolation
distance through the embankment at normal reservoir level,
(ii) Height and importance of structure,
(iii) Required width to provide embankment mass for resistance to
earthquake shock, and
(iv) Roadway requirements.

 USBR (1987) provides the following formula for the

determination of crest width of small dams:
b = 0.2 H + 3
 where b is crest width and H is height of dam
Protection of slopes
Usual type of surface protection for the upstream slope is stone riprap either dry
dumped or hand placed. When a thin layer is used, hand riprap may be more
economical than dumped riprap. There are several empirical methods to find out the
thickness of the riprap. These methods take into account the wave height,
embankment slope, weight of average size stone and its specific gravity.
 The size of stones used for hand placed riprap may be determined with the following

formula.
2.23Chw 1  2 S
2
dm 
   w S ( S  2)

 where dm = diameter of stone in meter, in the zone of maximum blow of the wave,
γw = unit weight of water in t/m³
γ = unit weight of stones in t/m³
S = slope of embankment
hw = height of wave in meter
C = factor depending on the type of protection.
- For hand placed riprap, C = 0.54
- For rockfill or dumped riprap, C = 0.80
Average size of stone required, dav = dm/0.85
Foundations and their treatment
A sound foundation
◦ Have sufficient strength to bear load, to prevent sliding,

◦ Tight enough to prevent excessive leakage and to reduce uplift

as much as possible.

◦ Not to be damaged by overflow and discharge from outlet

works.

 Foundations may be classified as:

◦ Rock foundations

◦ Earth foundations:
 Coarse grained material (sand and gravel)

 Fine grained materials (silt and clay)

Rock foundation
 In the strength and stability calculations they are considered to be

homogeneous, continuous and isotropic

 Actually they are heterogeneous, anisotropic, consisting of rocks of

different properties and are divided by various cracks, never be continuous.

 Have good bearing capacity and no settlement
 Defects of rock foundations:

◦ Presence of seam, fissures, cracks or faults that have usually

resulted in erosive leakage, excessive loss of water and sliding.

◦ Presence of weathered zone (surface rock) or crushed zone that

have usually resulted in separate foundation

Foundation treatment
 It may consists of grouting cracks and tectonic
zones and infilling of weak portions with concrete,
 Strengthening broken-up parts using different
connecting arrangements and structures.
 Weathered portion (surface rock) has to be
excavated and removed.
 Excavation has to be deep enough to give a firm
‘toe hold’ to the dam.
Consolidation of foundation:

 Grouting is carried out to consolidate fissured or cracked foundations

(consolidation grouting) by a grout that is prepared properly as a

mixture of water and cement with admixtures of rock flour, bentonite,

etc.

 Grouting is usually started with a mixture of cement and water in the

proportion 1:5 and gradually thickened to 1:1.

 Grouting hole:

◦ Depth =15 m

◦ Spacing = 3 to 6 m on centers

◦ Grout pressure = 3.5 kg/cm2 (=350 KPa)

GROUTING

 Execution starts with holes drilled and grouted

from 12 to 25 m apart; then, intermediate
holes are drilled and grouted.
 Allowable stress: Granite : 4.0 – 7.0 KPa
Limestone : 2.5 – 5.5 KPa
Sandstone : 2.5 – 4.0 KPa
Seepage analysis
Lecture 5
Seepage analysis
 Seepage occurs
◦ through the body of all earthen dams, and
◦ through their pervious foundation.
 Seepage through the foundation
◦ Can be minimized through foundation treatment,
cutoff materials
 Seepage through embankment can be
computed from
◦ the flow net, and/or
◦ Darcy’s equation.

96
Seepage analysis

 In flood control dams seepage is allowed as

far as it may not cause failure

 In conservation/storage dams seepage has to

be controlled
Phreatic surface
The position of phreatic line enables to determine:

1. The divide line between the dry (or moist) and submerged
soil zones.

2. The top stream line and hence, helps in drawing the flow net.

3. Helps to ensure that

◦ the downstream face is clear from seepage flow

◦ preventing softening of the dam.

◦ Elimination of high pore water pressures which may promote slope

instability

98
Seepage analysis
 Seepage occurs through the body of all earthen dams and also
through their pervious foundation.
 The phreatic surface of the seepage regime, i.e. line within the
dam section below which there is positive hydrostatic pressures
in the dam, must be kept well clear of the downstream face to
avoid high pore water pressures which may promote slope
instability.
 The amount of seepage can be easily computed from the flow
net, which consists of two sets of curves, known as
‘Equipotential line’ and ‘stream lines’, mutually perpendicular to
each other.
Seepage analysis
For a homogeneous earth dam of properly prepared
flow net the seepage discharge can be determined
as:
Nf
q  kH
Nd
Where: q - discharge per unit width of the dam passing through a flow net
H - is the head differential.
Nf - is number of stream lines.
Nd - is number of Equipotential lines.

100
Seepage analysis
 Determination of Phreatic Lines

 It is absolutely essential to determine the position of

the phreatic line, as its position will enable to
determine the following:
◦ The divide line between the dry (or moist) and submerged
soil.
◦ The top stream line and hence, helps us in drawing the flow
net.
◦ To ensure that the phreatic line doesn’t cut the downstream
face of the dam, which is extremely necessary for stability
Seepage analysis
 Phreatic line
◦ Homogeneous dam section with horizontal filter
◦ It has been found that the seepage line is pushed down by
the filter and it is very nearly parabolic except near its
junction with u/s face.
◦ Since the u/s face of the dam becomes an equipotential line
when fully covered with water, the seepage line shall be
perpendicular to the face near its junction point
Seepage analysis
 In the case of a central core and/or zoned embankment, construction
of the flownet is based upon consideration of the relative permeability
of each element and application of the continuity equation:

 q (upstream shoulder )= q (corezone) =q(downstream shoulder

+drains).

 Example .

The thickness of horizontal blanket drain, td, required to discharge the

seepage flow estimated from

td = (q L/kd)1/2=1.5H(kc/kd)1/2

 where L is the downstream shoulder width at drain level and kd and kc

are the drain and core permeabilities respectively (the factor 1.5 in
equation
Pheratic line

 Equation of the base parabola

 Let a base parabola with focus at F is drawn and produced so as to intersect

the water surface at a point A as shown in the above fig. Taking the focus
(F) as the origin, equation of the parabola p(x, y) can be written as
 ( y2 + x2)1/2= x+FD-------- 4.4
Phreatic line
 Location of A is approximately 0.33HB horizontal distance upstream from point B
according to Cassagrande.
 Where, H is the projection of the point G on the water surface.
 If the horizontal distance between the already determined point A and the focus
(F) is taken as say b, then (b, H) represents the coordinates of the point A on the
parabola. And hence;


( b2 + H2)1/2 = b +S
S = ( b2 + H2)1/2 – b

 The center point (C) of FD will then be the vertex of the parabola.
 when x = 0, y= S. Hence the vertical ordinate FJ at F will be equal to S.
 Knowing the points A, C, and J and working out a few more points from the
equation, the base parabola can be easily drawn and corrected for the curve BI, so
as to get the seepage line BIJC.
 The amount of seepage can also be calculated easily from the equation of the
seepage line as derived below.
Pheratic line
Darcy’s law is defined as, q = KiA. When steady
conditions have reached, the discharge crossing any
vertical plane across the dam section (unit width) will
be the same.
Hence, the value i and A can be taken for any point on
the seepage line
I =dy / dx
A =1*y
q = K y dy/dx
But from the equation of the parabola,
y =( S2 + 2*S )1/2
q=K [ 0.5(( S2 + 2xS )1/2 . 2S) ( S2 + 2xS )1/2 ]
q=KS
Pheratic line
 Homogeneous dam section without horizontal filter
 The focus (F) of the parabola will be the point lowest
point of the downstream slope as shown in Fig next.
 The base parabola BIJC will cut the downstream
slope at J and extend beyond the dam toe up to the
point C i.e. the vertex of the parabola.
PHERATIC LINE

 The seepage line will, however, emerge out at K, meeting the downstream face

tangentially there. The portion KF is known as discharge face and always

saturated. The correction JK (say Δa) by which the parabola is to be shifted

downward can be determined as follows:

 Phreatic line for homogeneous earth
dam of no horizontal filter
 in degrees a
a  a
30o 0.36
60o 0.32
90o 0.26
120o 0.18
135o 0.14
150o 0.10
180o 0.0

α is the angle which the discharge face makes with the horizontal.

a and ∆a can be connected 180 o   

a   a  a   
by;  400 o


α = 180o for a horizontal filter and α < 90o when no drainage is provided.
10
9
 Example
An earth dam made of a homogeneous material has
a horizontal filter and
other parameters as shown in the figure.
Determine
the phreatic line and
the seepage quantity through the body of the dam.

5
A
Ø = 25°
c = 24 kN/sq.m
dry = 18.0 kN/cu.m
25

sub = 12.0 kN/cu.m

20
k = 5*10^-6 m/sec
Horizontal Filter
F
25 25 5 15 60
8

130
Ø = 12° dry = 18.3 kN/cu.m
c = 54 kN/sq.m sub = 18.3 kN/cu.m

Fig. Section of the homogeneous earth dam.

11
1
Solution
Defining point F [face of the filter] as the origin of the
Cartesian co-ordinate system,

the equation of the parabola of the seepage line can

be expressed as:.

x2  y2  x  S

At point A,
x = 65m, and y = 20m.

Inserting into the parabola equation,

S = 3.07m.

Working out a few more points from the equation,

the parabola can be easily drawn and
corrected for the curve at the upstream face of the
dam,

11
2
Solution
The phreatic line is then drawn as shown below

The amount of seepage flow is

q = kS
= 5 * 10-6 * 3.07
= 15.35 * 10-6m3/sec per meter length of dam
11
3
 Embankment dam
Stability analysis lec 6
 Stability analysis
 Three considerations govern the design of an earth
embankment.
1. Side slopes must be stable;
2. Dimensions must be sufficient to control
seepage;
3. Base width must be long enough to distribute
weight of dam over sufficient area to prevent
overstress in the foundation.
 An earthen embankment usually fails because of
the sliding of a large soil mass along a curved
surface.
Forms of failure
 Toe failure: - most likely to occur when the
slopes are relatively steep
 Base failure: - occurs when the slopes are flat
or when the soil below the toe is relatively
weak.
 Face or slope failure: - occurs when there is a
relatively weak zone in the upper part of the
slope.
Stability analysis
 The form of the critical failure surface for Fmin is controlled by
many factors:
◦ soil type and
◦ the presence of discontinuities or interfaces, e.g. between
soft soil and rock.
 Different failure surfaces represent different embankment
and/or foundation situations
 For most initial analysis involving relatively homogeneous and
uniform cohesive soils, two dimensional circular arc failure
surfaces are assumed.
Stability …
 locus of the centre of the critical circle in such
cases, with ru(Up/ϒz) >0.3 be approximated by
zc  H cot  (0.6  2 tan  ' )

yc  H cot  (0.6  tan  ' )

 where zc and yc are coordinates with respect to

the toe, measured positive upwards and into
the slope respectively, H is the height and β
is the slope angle.
Design loading condition Factor of safety (Fmin)
Upstream Downstrea
slope m slope
1. Under construction; end of 1.25 1.25
construction
2. Long term operation reservoir full 1.5 1.5
3. Rapid drawdown 1.2
4. Seismic loading with 1,2 or 3 above 1.1 1.1

1. The above values must be interpreted in the context of the particular

case considered, e.g. uncertainties regarding any of the principal
parameters, uw, c and .
2. Higher design minima are appropriate for analyses based on total
stress parameters or on peak strengths in the case of more brittle soils.
Stability
 The method used for examining the stability of
slopes of earthen embankments is called: the
Swedish Slip Circle Method or the Slices Method.
 It assumes the condition of plane strain with
failure along a cylindrical arc.
 The location of the centre of the possible failure
arc is assumed.
 The earth mass is divided into a number of
vertical segments called slices as shown in the fig
 O is the center and r is the radius of the possible
failure
Stability
Failure surface
The stability of the side slope of an earthen dam is thus analyzed
by assuming a surface slippage within the soil mass and by
determining the resisting and the disturbing forces acting on
this surface and
The moments of these forces about the center of rotation, and
then factor of safety against sliding is calculated.
The normal force passes through the center O, so it doesn’t have
any effect
The disturbing force is the component of weight of slice in
tangential direction ( normal to the radius)
T= Wαsin,
Where: α is the angle which the slope makes with the horizontal.
The total disturbing forces will be summation of disturbing
forces for all slices;
 ΣT=T1+T2+T3…..
 FAILURE SURFACE
 There are forces known
as actuating, driving or
disturbing forces which
mainly consists of
gravity forces.
 The resisting or

stability forces which

are provided mainly by
the shearing strength
of the soil.

Figure . Possible slip surface in Earth fill dam

Stability
Factor of safety
FAILURE SURFACE
 For determining the stability of the proposed side slope of an
earth dam it is necessary to find the least factor of safety
which may occur on any of the possible surfaces of slippage
or slip circles.
 Slip circle which yields the least factor of safety is the most
critical and hence it is known as critical surface slippage or
critical slip circle.
 For locating the critical surface of slippage, it is necessary to
try several different surfaces of slippage as one trial gives the
value of factor of safety for that arc only.
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Table Slope and respective directional angle

Slope Directional angles

α1 in degrees α2 in degrees
1:1 27.5 37
2:1 25 35
3:1 25 35
4:1 25 35
5:1 25 35

Design parameters to be employed in stability analysis

may be summarized as follows
Slope stability
Locating critical surface
In order to reduce the number of trials, Fellenius has suggested a method of drawing a line,
representing the locus center of circles of the critical slip circle. The centers of the trial
circles are marked as O1, O2, etc. on the line AB. The corresponding factors of
safety F1, F2, etc. are plotted at the corresponding centers as perpendicular
ordinates on the line AB. The curve of factor of safety is obtained by joining the
ends of these ordinates. The center O corresponding to the minimum factor of
safety is the center of the most critical circle.
Slope stability
D/s slope stability under steady seepage

Because the pore water

pressure always acts
normal to the slip surface,
a line equal to u1 is drawn
normal to the slip surface
at point 1 to indicate the
pore pressure. The factor
of safety is determined
from the previous
equations.
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage
(reservoir full)
The most critical condition for the d/s slope occurs when
the reservoir is full and the seepage is taking place at full
rate.
The seepage water below the phreatic line exerts a pore
pressure on the soil mass which lies below the phreatic
line,
.

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

Consider slice number 4 in
Figure, the weight of the slice is
defined as;
W4 = γdry*V41+γsat * V 42
α4 read from the scaled drawing
of the earth fill dam. And
tangential component of W4 is
defined as, which is shear
stress developed at failure
plane,
T4=W4sinα4
Figure Stability of Downstream slope
The pore pressure for slice 4 is
during steady seepage represented by the piezometric
head h4. Hence pore water
pressure is
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Uw4=γw *h4

Shear strength developed for the slice is quantified from two soil
parameters, apparent cohesion c and angle of shearing resistance ф.
Shear strength at failure plane is defined as
τ4 = cL4 + (W4cos α 4−γwh4L4)tanф

Where; L4 is b/cosα4
The factor of safety of slide 4 is

FS4=Ʈ4/T4= ( cL4 + (W4cos α 4−γwh4L4)tanф ) / (W4sinα4)

The factor of safety for the entire circle is then given by the equation
FS= (ΣcLi+ Σ (Wicos α i−γwhiLi)tanф ) / Σ (Wi Sinαi)
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Stability of earth dam against headwater pressure (or
overall stability)
The overall sliding stability of the earth dam is determined considering it as a solid body. The
factor of safety against sliding is defined as the ratio of the force resisting sliding of the dam
to the force tending to cause sliding
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Stability of earth dam against horizontal shear
(d/s dam portion)

◦ The total horizontal force(Hd) is given by:

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Stability of earth dam against horizontal shear (d/s dam portion)

For H=total height, h1 =hydrostatic head, Y1,Y2 are unit weights of

submerged and wet soil
◦ The resisting force due internal friction and soil cohesion of d/s portion of
the dam is given by:

Wd is weight of the d/s portion of the dam

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Factor of safety against maximum shear
The downstream slope should also be checked against the maximum
shear, which occurs at a point on the base at a horizontal distance of
0.4 bd from the shoulder. According to the theory of elasticity, the
maximum shear (τmax) is twice the average shear (τa).
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Factor of safety against maximum shear
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
U/s slope stability against horizontal shear

where γs is the saturated unit weight of the soil in the upstream portion, H is the
vertical distance from the top of the dam to the base of the dam, and h 1 is the
vertical distance from the phreatic line to the base of the dam.
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
U/s slope stability against horizontal shear
If bu is the width of the base of the u/s portion of the dam, the
average shear stress at the base is given by

where W´u is the total effective weight of the u/s portion of the
dam above the base.
The average factor of safety Fs is:
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Factor of safety against maximum shear (u/s portion)

The maximum shear stress occurs at a point at a distance of 0.4b u from the vertical
line CD through the u/s shoulder, as in the case of d/s slope. Shear strength at that
point is given by:

where γ´s is the submerged unit weight of soil, h is the height of the
soil column at that point. Thus

The factor of safety against maximum shear stress should be at least

1.5. Similar procedure should be repeated for other horizontal sections
above the base
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Stability of Upstream Slope during sudden drawdown
 suddenly emptied reservoir, the water level within the soil will

remain as it was when the soil pores were full of water.

 The weight of this water within the soil now tends to slide the

u/s slope along a circular arc.

 The tangential components of the saturated soil lying over the

arc will create a disturbing force; while the normal component

minus the pore pressure supply the shear strength of the soil.

The factor of safety is finally obtained from the equation

FS=(ΣciLi + ΣN'tanφ )/ ΣT ‘
Where: N’ represents normal components on submerged weight
T’ represents tangential components on saturated unit weight of
the soil
Foundation analysis
weak surface
Foundation analysis
Stability of foundation against horizontal shear
 Foundation stress in earth dams are not usually critical.
 if the foundation consists of fine, loose sand, unconsolidated silt or clay, it has
low shear strength. Such foundations should be checked for stability against
horizontal shear
An approximate method is given below, which is based on the
assumption that a c-Φ soil can be replaced by an equivalent
cohesionless soil, which would produce the same earth pressure as that
by the c-Φ soil
 Foundation analysis
Stability of foundation below upstream slope
For checking the stability of the foundation
below the upstream slope, the sudden
drawdown condition is the most critical and is
discussed below.

where γm is the mean unit weight of the soil mass

of the dam and foundation, which is weighted in
proportion of the thickness of each.

γD is the unit weight of the soil mass in the dam and γ m in the foundation. Ф1 is the
equivalent angle of internal friction of purely cohesionless soil, Φ and c are, the angle
Foundation analysis
 For bu u/s shoulder length the average shear stress is given by

The point of maximum shear stress (τmax) occurs at the rigid boundary
at a horizontal distance 0.4bu from the shoulder and is equal to 1.4
times the average shear stress.
The factor of safety is given by
Foundation analysis
 The average shear strength of the foundation is taken as the mean
of the shear strengths of the foundation at the point C below the
heel of the dam and point B below the shoulder of the dam.

where γ´F is the submerged unit weight of the soil mass of the
foundation.
The shear strength below the shoulder is given by

where γ´m is the mean

submerged unit weight of soil
mass of the dam and the
foundation, given by
Foundation analysis
where γ´D is the submerged unit weight of the soil mass of the dam.
 Therefore the factor of safety average shear is expressed as

The factor of safety against average

shear should at least be 1.50.
•The factor of safety against maximum
shear is also necessary. The shear
strength at point D where the maximum
shear stress occurs is given by

where γ´m is the mean effective unit weight of the soil mass along a
vertical line passing through point D, and is given by

where h is the vertical distance from the u/s slope to the point D on the rigid boundary.
The factor of safety against maximum shear is given by

The factor of safety should be greater than unity.

Slope stability analysis
 Examples:
 1. Swedish circle method: Check the stability of the upstream face slope of the dam
for the assumed surface shown. The properties of the shell, core and foundation
materials are as follows:
Solution
The entire soil mass has been assumed to be saturated, though, a small portion
above the phreatic line under steady seepage conditions will not be saturated. The
values of Φ and c are taken corresponding to the material through which the base
of that slice passes. The value of the angle θ, which the vertical lines make with
the normal, are measured and written in Col. (7).
Example 2
Stability of earth dam against headwater pressure
For the dam shown in the figure below (height 100 ft), the maximum
headwater is at an elevation of 90ft above the base. The position of the
seepage line results in 65% of the cross section being saturated and
submerged. Determine the safety against headwater pressure (overall
stability).
Example 2
Foundation analysis
Foundation analysis
 The downward force exerted on the foundation at the center of
the dam tends to squeeze the foundation material from under the
dam.
 But shear stress develops in the foundation resisting this action.
 Assuming the foundation loading to vary as indicated above, Leo
Jugenson suggested the following maximum stresses:
 If t > L, τmax= 0.256γf Hs ; Where γf = specific weight of fill
 
 Usually t < L If t < L/10, τmax = γf Hs t/L

Shear strength = Ss = c + σ tanΦ

The factor of safety against overstress is
FS = Ss/ τmax
A minimum value of FS = 1.5 is recommended
Stress analysis
Stress analysis
 The application of sophisticated mathematical
modelling techniques to embankment dam
stress analysis is inhibited by difficulties
occasioned by non-uniformity of the fill
materials and by representation of their
nonlinear load response.
Stress analysis
 Hydraulic fracturing
 The analysis of internal stresses is generally restricted to an assessment
of the risk of hydraulic fracturing or of internal cracking,
 It is as a result of interface effects attributable to load transfer and
strain incompatibility at zone boundaries.

 Has the risk of consequent internal erosion and migration of fines, may
initiate if the total stress, normal to any plane within a soil mass is less
than the local pore water pressure uw, making allowance for the limited
tensile strength, σt, of the soil.
Stress /fracture
 The condition for fracturing to occur is thus, uw>σn > σt on
any internal plane.
 Given that such a fracture initiates in the core the factors
critical to integrity are firstly whether the fracture propagates
through the core and, secondly, whether seepage velocities
etc. are such that ongoing erosion takes place.
 Development of the erosion process will depend upon
whether the fracture self-heals and/or the ability of the
material immediately downstream to ‘trap’ fines migrating
from the core.
STABILITY AND STRESS
 Fracturing will develop on the latter orientation
 if vertical total stress, v, falls below uw as a result of
arching of a compressible core as a result of load
transfer to relatively incompressible (e.g. rockfill)
shoulders.
 Mobilization of core shear strength and cracking is
associated with consolidation of a clay core supported
by relatively incompressible granular shoulders.
Cracking
 Cracking other than by hydraulic fracturing is
generally associated with strain incompatibilities,
e.g. at interfaces within the embankment.
 Potentially dangerous transverse or longitudinal
cracking modes can develop from a number of
causes:
◦ 1. shear displacements relative to very steep rock
abutments or to badly detailed culverts;
◦ 2. differential strains and/or local arching across
irregular foundations;
◦ 3. vertical steps along the axis of a deep cut-off trench;
◦ 4. progressive slope deformation and distress;
◦ 5. strain in compatibilities across interfaces within the
dam.
Drainage and filter materials

Lecture 7
Internal drainage system
Purpose of drainage:
 To reduce the pore pressure thereby increasing the

stability of the dam

 To prevent piping so that soil particles are not carried

away from the embankment.

 A drainage system consists of two components.

a. the protective filter

b. the conduit which collects and
disposes of the seepage.
 Protective filter : serves to allow free drainage and to

prevent erosion.
 It is provided between:

Riprap and embankment

Core and embankment
Embankment and drains
 Experiments by Terzaghi, Bertram and others have

shown that a filter need only hold the coarse 15% of

the grain size.

 Filter gradation curve should be smooth and parallel

to the soil being filtered. When the soil is gap graded

recomputed and re-plot the grain size distribution

using only the fraction finer than the break as

representing the entire soil; apply the filter criteria to

this distribution
Filter thickness:
 Thin filter is desirable to minimize flow
resistance. Practical considerations, however,
put minimum sizes as shown in Table

Filter Thickness for given head, cm

0 – 25 m 25 – 50 m 50 – 100 m
Fine sand 15 30 45
Coarse sand 25.5 45 60
Gravel 30 60 75
Design filter
 For every fine grained soil a multiple layered filter is
necessary. Each successive layer is designed to fit
the D15 and D85 of the finer layer it must filter. The
last layer must fit the openings of the drain conduit
which carries the water away.
Drain Conduit
 Function: to collect water from the filter and carry it away
with as little head as possible.
 Quantity of Flow: Estimated from the seepage analysis.
 Simplest conduit: uniform coarse fragmental material (coarse
sand, gravel, crushed rock, etc.)
 A properly designed filter must surround the drain.
 For high discharges or when suitable crushed rock is not
available, pipe conduits wig perforated and flexible joints are
employed.
DRAIN TYPE
DRAIN TYPE
 Position- when there is cut-off, the drain is placed immediately downstream from the

cut-off to relieve any pressure build up.

 When there is no cut-off, the position depends on the seepage analysis of dam and

foundation.
 Upstream location
 Increases stability at the cost of increased seepage and cost of conduit.
 Minimum distance from downstream toe to provide substantial increase in stability is

1/3 of the base width. Maximum distance is 2/3 of base width, from downstream toe.
 Blanket drain:
 This is horizontal drain placed on top of foundation.
 To intercept water from vertical fissures in the foundation;
 To lower the seepage line in the embankment
DRAIN TYPE

 Riprap is required on the upstream slope and the downstream slope below the tail water level. An

estimation of the required weight of rock pieces required for riprap is given by Hudson as

 W ≥ (H2 ρst tan α) / (3.2Δ2)

 Where: the factor 3.2 is for smooth quarry stone
 ρst = density of rock
 α = angle of slope
 Δ = (ρst – ρw)/ ρw
 ρw = density of water
Types of riprap
Dumped riprap: consists of angular broken rock
dumped from truck and spread.
Hand-placed riprap: consists of more or less prismatic
stone placed on end to form rough pavements.
Spillways
 Spillway is the most important component of the dam which serves to release

excess flood from a reservoir efficiently and safely. It is the most expensive of

all the appurtenances structure. Its capacity is determined from the

hydrological studies over the drainage area.

Spillway components include;

◦ Entrance channel: to minimize head loss and to obtain uniform distribution of flow over the
spillway crest

◦ Control structure: to regulate and control the outflow. It may consist of a sill, weir, orifice,
tube, or pipe.

◦ Discharge channel: to convey the discharge from the control structure to the terminal
structure/stream bed. The conveyance structure may be the downstream face of a concrete

dam, an open channel excavated along the ground surface, a closed cut-and-cover conduit

placed through or under a dam, or a tunnel excavated through an abutment.

Spillways
 Terminal structure: to dissipate excess energy of the
flow in order to avoid scouring of the stream bed
 Outlet channel: to safely convey the flow from the
terminal structure to the river channel.
 Types of spillway taking the hydraulic as criteria are
broadly
◦ Controlled (Gated) spillway

◦ Uncontrolled (Ungated) spillway

Spillways
Taking the most prominent feature as criteria, spillway
types are

a. Free overfall (straight drop) spillway

b. Ogee (overflow) spillway

c. Chute (open channel or trough) spillway

d. Side channel spillway

e. Drop inlet (shaft or morning glory) spillway

f. Siphon spillway
Spillway
Spillways
 For embankment dams (Earthen &Rock fill) the
spillways are selected separately from the main
body of the dam. Eg. Chute, Side channel spillways
 Side channel spillway
 Side channel spillways (Fig below) are mainly used
when it is not possible or advisable to use a direct
overfall spillway as, e.g., at earth and rock fill
dams.

a) b)
Fig 6-2 Side channel spillway: (a)Plan (b) section A-A, side view