PAVEMENT DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION

Traffic Analysis
Primary Pavement Design Inputs

 Traffic
 Pavement Material
 Subgrade / Foundation
 Layer Material Properties
 Environment / Climate
Traffic
Traffic Analysis
 Geometric design
 All types of vehicles from non-motorized to motorized
 From light to heavy vehicles
 Pavement design
 Only vehicles causing significant damage to pavement
 Usually total vehicles weight greater than 3 Tons
Types of Traffic Data

 Automatic vehicle classification (AVC)

 Number of vehicles by vehicle type counted over a period
of time
 Weigh-in-motion (WIM)
 Number of axles observed within a series of load groups
 Axle configuration and truck type
Traffic Loading

 Important parameters pavement analysis/design

 Gross vehicle load
 Wheel load
 Axle and tire configurations
 Axle repetition
 Distribution of axle loading
 Vehicle speed
Typical Vehicle Classification
1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

9 10 11

12 13
Axle and Tire Configurations

Single axle – single tire Single axle – dual tire

Tandem axle – single tire Tandem axle – dual tire

Axle and Tire Configurations, Cont’d

Tridem axle – dual tire

Quad axle – dual tire

Generalized Vehicles Types
 Commercial vehicles single or multiple units
 Typical suggested legal load per axle
 Single axle single tire = 6 Tons
 Single axle dual tire = 10.5 Tons
 Tandem axle dual tire = 12 Tons
Tire Contact Area
 Load is considered to be
uniformly distributed over
the contact area
 Low pressure tires, contact
pressure greater than tire
pressure and vice versa
 Generally assumed that tire
inflation and contact
pressures are the same (this
is adequate approximation)
Tire Contact Area (Cont’d)

 Circular area is assumed with uniform load.

Where a = radius of tire contact 

P = total load on the tire 
p = tire inflation pressure
 In United States generally load limit values are per
inch width of tire (range 450-800 lbs/inch).
Tire Contact Area (Cont’d)

 Actual tire area: Rectangle and two semi-circles

 Contact area not axisymmetric: not valid for layered
theory, requires circular area.

Ac
Ac   (0.3L) 2  (0.4 L)(0.6 L)  0.5227 L2 L
0.5227
Example for Dual Wheel Setup

 Dual wheel –18 KSAL (80 kN), tire pressure = 80 psi.

 Single tire load = 4500 lb (20 kN) ; Ac = 4500/80 = 56.25 in2
 L = 10.37 inch; 0.6L = 6.22 inch; 0.8712L = 9.03 in.
OBJECTIVE

To Estimate the Traffic in

Design Lane or Design
Area
Traffic Approaches
 Fixed traffic
 Fixed vehicle
 Variable traffic and vehicle
Fixed Traffic Approach
 Requires selection of design vehicle
 Design vehicle is the most damaging vehicle
(usually the heaviest vehicle)
 Repetitions not considered
 Design based on ESWL (Equivalent Single Wheel
Load)
 Typically used for airport pavements
 Limited application (not used with mechanistic
analysis)
Fixed Vehicle Approach
 Requires as standard design vehicles
 Traffic mix converted into equivalent number of
standard vehicles using EALF (Equivalent Axle
Load Factor)
 Most common standard axle is 18 kip (80 kN)
 EALF multiplied by number of repetition will
result in ESAL (Equivalent Single Axle Load)
 Most common approach used by several design
methodologies (AASHTO, RN31 methodology)
Variable Vehicle and Traffic
 Variation in load and configuration are
individually considered (no equivalent conversions)
 Actual load spectra for single, tandem, tridem, and
quad axles. Load spectra includes the counts of
number of axles within a series of load groups in a
given time interval
 Damage is computed by stresses/strains for each
individual condition
 Common approach for mechanistic analysis
Equivalent Axle Load Factors (EALF)
 Pavement design is based on the selected number of
repetitions of a standard load (standard load – 18
kip (80 kN) SAL)
 EALFs is used to convert different axle loads into
equivalent repetitions of standard axle
 EALF defines the damage caused by one repetition
of the axle load under consideration relative to the
damage caused by a single repetition of a standard
axle
Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL)
 Number of repetitions of a standard axle during
the design period (ESAL)
m
ESAL   Fi ni
i 1

m = number of axle load groups

Fi = EALF for the ith-axle load group
ni = number of applications of the ith group
Equivalent Single Axle Loads

No. Equivalent of Single Axle Loads

80 kN (18 kip) 80 kN (18 kip) 80 kN (18 kip)
 Jim’s Produce

Ace Trucking Co.

ESAL = Equivalent Single Axle Loads

 Little Truck

67 kN 27 kN
15,000 lb + 6,000 lb =
0.49 ESALs
0.48 ESAL 0.01 ESAL

BIG TRUCK

151 kN 151 kN 54 kN
34,000 lb + 34,000 lb + 12,000 lb =
2.39 ESALs
1.10 1.10 0.19
 ESAL Comparison

Acme Van
Lines
3,500- 1
5,000
Load Equivalency Factor

 Convert mixed traffic into equivalent 80-kN (18-

kip) single axles
 Equivalent axles based on loss in serviceability
(damage) measured at the AASHO Road Test
 Load equivalent factors used for the conversion
and is equal to:
Number of 18  kip ESALs
causing a given loss in serviceabi lity
EALF  LEF 
Number of x  kip axle
causing the same serviceabi lity loss
Example - LEF

 Consider two identical pavement structures that

carried the following loads, resulting in a drop in
serviceability from 4.2 to 2.5:
 100,000 load applications of an 80-kN (18-kip) single axle
load.
 14,347 load applications of a 133-kN (30-kip) single axle
load.
 The load equivalency factor is 100,000/14,347
=6.97.
AASHTO LEF Equations – Flexible Pvt.
4.79  G x 
Wx  L18  L2 s   10  L2 x  4.33
 
W18  Lx  L2 x  10G 1 8 
 
W = axle applications (where W18 = number of 18,000 lb (80 kN) single
axle loads)
Lx = axle load being evaluated (kips)
L18 = 18 (standard axle load in kips)
L2 = code for axle configuration
1 = single axle
2 = tandem axle
3 = triple axle (added in the 1986 AASHTO Guide)
x = axle load equivalency factor being evaluated
s = code for standard axle = 1 (single axle)
pt = "terminal" serviceability index (point at which the pavement is
considered to be at the end of its useful life)
SN = structural number (defines structural capacity of pavement)
 4.2  pt   0.081( L x  L2 x ) 3.23 
log  0.4   
G =  4. 2  1. 5  b =  3.23 
 ( SN  1) L2 x
5.19

Example for Single Axle Load - Flexible
Single axle, 30,000 lb (133 kN), SN = 3, pt = 2.5
G = serviceability loss factor Lx = L30 = 30

 4.2  2.5  L2x = 1 (single axle)

= log   0.2009
4 .2  1.5 
4.79  G  30 
30 = curve slope factor W30  18  1  10G  L2 x  4.33

 0.081(30  1)3.23  W18  L30  L2 x  10 18 
= 0.4   5.19 3.23   4.388  
 (3  1) (1) 
4.79
W30  18  1  10 0.04578  4.33
 0.1646 1  0.1260
G/30 = -0.2009/4.388 = -0.04578

W18  30  1  10 
 0.081(18  1)3.23 
18 = 0.4   5.19 3.23   1.2204
 (3  1) (1)  1
G/18 = -0.2009/1.2204 = -0.1646
Finally, LEF =  7.9365  7.9
0.1260
Example for a Tandem Axle - Flexible

Tandem axle, 40,000 lb (178 kN), SN = 5, pt = 2.5

G = serviceability loss factor L40 = 40 (tandem axle)

 4 .2  2 .5  L18 = 18 (single axle)

= log   0.2009
 4 . 2  1 .5 
L2x = 2 (tandem axle)
40 = curve slope factor
L2s = 1 (single axle)
 0.081(40  2) 3.23

= 0.4     0.53824
 (5  1) (2)
5.19 3.23

G/40 = -0.2009/0.53824 = -0.37325
1
18
 0.081(18  1) 3.23 
= 0.4     0.50006
3.23 
LEF =  2.08
 (5  1) 5.19
(1)  0.48064
G/18 = -0.2009/0.50006 = -0.40175
AASHTO LEF Equations – Rigid Pvt.
4.62  Gx 
Wx  L18  L2 s   10G  L2 x  3.28
 
W18  Lx  L2 x  10  18 
 
W = axle applications (where W18 = number of 18,000 lb (80 kN) single
axle loads)
Lx = axle load being evaluated (kips)
L18 = 18 (standard axle load in kips)
L2 = code for axle configuration
1 = single axle
2 = tandem axle
3 = triple axle (added in the 1986 AASHTO Guide)
x = axle load equivalency factor being evaluated
s = code for standard axle = 1 (single axle)
pt = "terminal" serviceability index (point at which the pavement is
considered to be at the end of its useful life)
D = thickness of concrete slab (inch
 4.5  pt   3.63 ( Lx  L2 x )5.20 
log  1.00   
G =  4.5  1.5  b =  ( D  1) 8.46 3.52
L2x 
Example for Single Axle Load - Rigid
Single axle, 30,000 lb (133 kN), D = 7 in., pt = 2.5
G = serviceability loss factor
Lx = L30 = 30
 4. 5  2 . 5 
= log   0.1761 L2x = 1 (single axle)
 4.5  1.5 
30 = curve slope factor
4.62  Gx 
Wx  L18  L2 s   10G  L2 x  3.28
 
 3.63(30  1) 5.20  W18  Lx  L2 x  10 1 8 
= 1.00     5.7298
3.52   
 ( 7  1) 8.46
(1) 
4.62
-0.1761/5.7298 = -0.03073 W30  18  1  10 0.03073  3.28
 0.12845 1  0.1305
G/ 30 =

W18  30  1 10 
 3.63(18  1) 5.20 
18 = 1.00     1.3709
3.52 
 (7  1) (1) 
8.46

1
G/ 18 = -0.1761/1.3709 = -0.12845
LEF =  7.67  7.
0.1305
AASHTO LEF for Pt = 2.5 (SA - Flexible)
Pavement Structural Number
Axle
Load, 1 2 3 4 5 6
kips*

2 .0004 .0004 .0003 .0002 .0002 .0002

4 .003 .004 .004 .003 .002 .002
6 .011 .017 .017 .013 .010 .009
8 .032 .047 .051 .041 .034 .031
10 .078 .102 .118 .102 .088 .080
12 .168 .198 .229 .213 .189 .176
14 .328 .358 .399 .388 .360 .342
16 .591 .613 .646 .645 .623 .606
18 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
20 1.61 1.57 1.49 1.47 1.51 1.55
22 2.48 2.38 2.17 2.09 2.18 2.30
24 3.69 3.49 3.09 2.89 3.03 3.27
26 5.33 4.99 4.31 3.91 4.09 4.48
28 7.49 6.98 5.90 5.21 5.39 5.98
30 10.3 9.5 7.9 6.8 7.0 7.8
32 13.9 12.8 10.5 8.8 8.9 10.0
34 18.4 16.9 13.7 11.3 11.2 12.5
AASHTO LEF for Pt = 2.5 (TA - Flexible)
Pavement Structural Number
Axle
Load, 1 2 3 4 5 6
kips

8 .004 .006 .005 .004 .003 .003

10 .008 .013 .011 .009 .007 .006
12 .015 .024 .023 .018 .014 .013
14 .026 .041 .042 .033 .027 .024
16 .044 .065 .070 .057 .047 .043
18 .070 .097 .109 .092 .077 .070
20 .107 .141 .162 .141 .121 .110
22 .160 .198 .229 .207 .180 .166
24 .231 .273 .315 .292 .260 .242
26 .327 .370 .420 .401 .364 .342
28 .451 .493 .548 .534 .495 .470
30 .611 .648 .703 .695 .658 .633
32 .813 .843 .889 .887 .857 .834
34 1.06 1.08 1.11 1.11 1.09 1.08
36 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38
38 1.75 1.73 1.69 1.68 1.70 1.73
40 2.21 2.16 2.06 2.03 2.08 2.14
AASHTO LEF for Pt = 2.5 (SA – Rigid)
Slab Thickness, in
Axle
Load, 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
kips

2 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002

4 .003 .002 .002 .002 .002 .002 .002 .002 .002
6 .012 .011 .010 .010 .010 .010 .010 .010 .010
8 .039 .035 .033 .032 .032 .032 .032 .032 .032
10 .097 .089 .084 .082 .081 .080 .080 .080 .080
12 .203 .189 .181 .176 .175 .174 .174 .173 .173
14 .376 .360 .347 .341 .338 .337 .336 .336 .336
16 .634 .623 .610 .604 .601 .599 .599 .599 .598
18 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
20 1.51 1.52 1.55 1.57 1.58 1.58 1.59 1.59 1.59
22 2.21 2.20 2.28 2.34 2.38 2.40 2.41 2.41 2.41
24 3.16 3.10 3.22 3.36 3.45 3.50 3.53 3.54 3.55
26 4.41 4.26 4.42 4.67 4.85 4.95 5.01 5.04 5.05
28 6.05 5.76 5.92 6.29 6.61 6.81 6.92 6.98 7.01
30 8.16 7.67 7.79 8.28 8.79 9.14 9.35 9.46 9.52
32 10.8 10.1 10.1 10.7 11.4 12.0 12.3 12.6 12.7
34 14.1 13.0 12.9 13.6 14.6 15.4 16.0 16.4 16.5
Truck Factor
Axle Weight, Number Equivalency Number of
Type kN (kips) of Axles Factor ESALs

Single 44 (10) 1400 0.102 143

Single 80 (18) 500 1.00 500
Single 98 (22) 300 2.09 627
Single 116 (26) 200 3.91 782
Tandem 142 (32) 400 0.887 355
Tandem 160 (36) 350 1.38 483
Tandem 178 (40) 200 2.03 406
Tandem 196 (44) 100 2.88 288

Totals: 3,450 3,584

3584
Truck Factor   2.76 (for 1300 truck counts)
1300
LEF Example
Assume a logging truck has three axles:
 Truck tractor
o Steering axle (single axle) = 14,000 lb (62.2 kN)
o Drive axle (tandem axle) = 34,000 lb (151.1 kN)
 Trailer
o Pole trailer axle (tandem axle) = 30,000 lb (133.3 kN) 
The total equivalent damage by this truck is (p t = 3.0, SN= 3):

Steering axle @ 14,000 lb = 0.47 LEF

Drive axle @ 34,000 lb = 1.15 LEF
Pole axle @ 30,000 lb = 0.79 LEF
Total   = 2.41 LEF

If a pavement is subjected to 100 of these trucks each day (in one direction) for 20
years (5 days per week), the total ESAL for this truck would be: (5 day/7 day)(365
days/year)(20 years)(100 trucks/day)(2.41 LEF/truck) = 1,256,643 ESAL
Truck Factor (Tf) for 165 Trucks
Axle Load Traffic EALF Number of Axles Total ESAL
Single Axle
Under 3000 0.0002 0 0.000
3000-6999 0.0050 1 0.005
7000-7999 0.0320 6 0.192
8000-11999 0.0870 144 12.528
12000-15999 0.3600 16 5.760
26000-29999 5.3890 1 5.389
Tandem Axle
Under 6000 0.0100 0 0.000
6000-11999 0.0100 14 0.140
12000-17999 0.0440 21 0.924
18000-23999 0.1480 44 6.512
24000-29999 0.4260 42 17.892
30000-32000 0.7530 44 33.132
32001-32500 0.8850 21 18.585
32501-33999 1.0020 101 101.202
34000-35999 1.2300 43 52.890
255.151

Truck Factor = 255.151/165 = 1.54

Generalized Fourth Power Law

 The AASHTO load equivalency equation is quite

cumbersome and certainly not easy to remember.
Therefore, as a rule-of-thumb, the damage caused
by a particular load is roughly related to the load
by a power of four (for reasonably strong
pavement surfaces). 
 Using the fourth power rule-of-thumb:
4
 Lx 
LEF    
 Ls 
Traffic Analysis
 Prediction of number of repetitions during the design period
on the design lane
 Usually provided for both directions and in all lanes.
m

 For 18-Kip Single Axle: ESAL  Fn

i 1
i i

 In which m is the number of axle load groups, Fi is LEF for ith

group, ni is number of passes of the ith group.
 “ni” in the above equation is computed as:
ni  (no ) i (G )( D)( L)(365)(Y )

 “(no)i” initial number of repetition per day for the i th group.

Traffic Analysis (Cont’d)

 “(no)i” initial number of repetition per day for the i th group:

(no )i  ( pi Fi )( ADT ) o (T )( A)

 Where “pi” is the percentage of traffic in ith load group in

decimal, “ADTo” is average daily traffic at start, “T” is the
percent trucks and “A” is the average axles per truck.
 Substituting in previous
m
 equation (previous slide):
ESAL    pi Fi ( ADT ) o (T )( A)(G )( D)( L)(365)(Y )
 i 1 

m

Truck Factor (T f )    pi Fi  ( A)
 i 1 

ESAL  ( ADT ) o (T )(T f )(G )( D)( L)(365)(Y )

Example - Traffic Analysis

 A two lane major rural highway has ADT of 4000

during the first year, 25% trucks, 4% Growth rate,
and 50% on design lane. The estimated Tf is 0.38.
Compute traffic for 20 years.
ESAL  ( ADT ) o (T )(T f )(G )( D)( L)(365)(Y )
 ( ADT ) o (T )(T f )( D)( L)(365)(G )(Y )

 Solution: GF = 29.78 (20 years and 4% growth).

ESAL  (4000)(0.25)(0.38)(0.5)(1.0)(365)( 29.78)
 2,065,200
Growth Factor (GF)

 Determine Current Traffic Volume

 Project Traffic Volume over period of pavement
life
(G )(Y ) 
 1 r  1
Y

Where: (G)(Y) = Growth Factor

Y = design life
r = growth rate
Example of Single Axle Growth

400000

300000
Projected number of
single axles

200000

100000

0
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
Year
 Home Problem # 1
An 8-lane divided highway is to be constructed on a new alignment.
Traffic volume forecasts indicate that the AADT in both directions
during the 1st year will be 12,000 with the following vehicle mix:
2 Axle passenger cars (1 kip/axle) = 50%
1 + 2 (tandem) axle trucks (6 + 28 kips/axle) = 33%
1 + 2 + 3 axle trucks (6 + 20 + 40 kips/axle) = 17%
The vehicle mix is expected to remain the same throughout the
design life. Expected annual traffic growth is 4%. Determine
ESAL for 20 year design period.
Questions ???