Lecture 2&3

Instrumentation and Measurements

Measurement and Functional Elements of Instruments

Instrumentation:
 Application of Instrumentation:
a) Monitoring of Processes and Operations
b) Control of Processes and Operations
c) Experimental engineering analysis
 Measurement
 Basic Process Measurements provides a unique resource explaining
the industrial measuring devices that gauges/measures such key
variables as temperature, pressure, density, level, and flow
 Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of
comparison between a quantity whose magnitude (amount) is unknown,
with a similar quantity whose magnitude (amount) is known, the latter
quantity being called a Standard. This is shown in the Fig. 1.1.
 Methods of measurement

The methods of measurement may be broadly classified

into two categories:

1.Direct Methods.

2.In-Direct Methods
Direct Methods.
Direct measurement – measured quantity is measured directly
with an instruments. Direct methods are quite common for the
measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and time.

Examples
Measuring voltage vith voltmeter
Measuring length with ruler/scale

.
Indirect measurement
 Indirect measurement – result is calculated (using formula) from the
values obtained from direct measurements.

Example

V=I*R

 V – Voltage measured with voltmeter

 I – Current measured with ammeter
 R – Resistance measured with Ohm meter
Classification of physical quantites
1.Can be divided for quantities which value is determined uniquely and does not depend on the
zero level. (Base Quantities)
Example
-Mass (200 grams of water in vessel)
-Length (2 meter length of object)

2.Can only be determined as a reference to some fixed zero level. (Derived Quantities)
Example
-Potential energy (zero level can be ground floor or 3d floor and result depends on that)
-Car is moving at a speed of 4 km per hour ‘East’
-Time of reaching some where
NOTE: The change in time and change n potential energy refers to the case 1.
 Error in measurement

Measurement always introduces error

There are two types of error may
I. Absolute error
II. Percentage error
III. Accuracy
IV. Precision
Absolute error

Where;
Yn = Actual/expected value
Xn = measured value
Percentage of error

percentage of error

where
Yn Actual/expected value
Xn measured value
Classification of Error
Difference B/w Precision and Accuracy
Accuracy Precision
 Accuracy refers to the level of  Precision implies the level of
agreement between the actual variation that lies in the values of
measurement and the absolute several measurements of the same
measurement factor.
 How closely result agree with the  How closely the results agree with
standard value one another
 Degree of conformity  Degree of reproducibility
 Relative accuracy,

% Accuracy, A = 100%.A

Where;
Xn = value of the nth measurement
Xn = average set of measurement
Example 1.1

Given expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V. The

measurement is 79V.

Calculate
1) The absolute error
2) The % of error
3) The % of accuracy
Solution (Example 1.1)
Given;
expected value = 80V
measurement value = 79V

i. Absolute error,

e = 80V – 79V = 1V

ii. % error ,

= 1.25%
iii. Relative accuracy,

= 0.9875

iv. % accuracy, a = A x 100%

= 0.9875 x 100%

=98.75%
 Generalized Measurement system

 It is a framework of general arrangement of three phases

I. Stage I. Detection (Transducer or sensor-transducer)

II. Stage II. Signal conditioning stage

III. Stage III.Read-out, recording stage

Generalized measurement system

indicator

Analogous
Measurand signal recorder

Sensor- Signal
computer
Transducer Conditioning

Transducer processor
signal-analogous
to input
controller

Block diagram of generalized measurement system

Sensor

A device which performs an input function are called sensors because they sense a physical change in some

characteristics of a parameter or physical quantity.

Transducer

A device that changes one form of energy into another form, such as pressure or brightness, into an electrical

signal, or vice versa.

Types of transducers

There are different types of transducers available in the marketplace, and the choice of which one to use really

depends upon the quantity being measured or controlled, with the more common types given in the table below.
 Transducer types
Input Output
variable to variable of Principle of operation Type of device
transducer transducer
An emf is generated across the
Temperatur Voltage junctions of two dissimilar metals or Thermocouple
e semiconductors when that junction or Thermopile
is heated
There is a thermal expansion in
volume when the temperature of
Temperatur liquids or liquid metals is raised and Liquid in Glass
Displacement
e this expansion can be shown as Thermometer)
displacement of the liquid in the
capillary

Temperatur Pressure The pressure of a gas or vapor varies Pressure

e with the change in temperature Thermometer

Movement of The impressed pressure is balanced

Pressure a liquid by the pressure generated by a Manometer
21

column column of liquid

 Transducer types
Input Output
variable to variable of Principle of operation Type of device
transducer transducer
The application of pressure
Displacement causes displacement in
Pressure Bourdon Gauge
elastic
elements
The application of force
against a
Force Displacement spring changes its length in Spring Balance
proportion to the applied
force

Resistance of a conductive
Resistance
strip
Humidity change Resistance
changes with the moisture
Hygrometer
content
Instrument Model-1

Physical
Signal
Measurement
Variable Measurement
Variable

SENSOR
Measurand
X S M

Physical Display
Process
 Instrument Model-II
If the signal from Sensor output is small, it is needed to be
amplified. In many cases it is also necessary for the instrument
to provide a digital signal output for connection with a
computer-based data acquisition systems.

Physical Analog Analog Digital

Measurement Signal Signal Signal
Variable Variable Variable Variable

SENSO AMPLI A/D Computer

Measura Conver
R FIER
nd ter
X S
Memory

Physical Output
Process
Functional Elements
 Operation of an instrument is described in terms of
their functional elements. Once we know the
function of each element we can easily understand
the operation.

 Performance of an instrument are always described

by using static and dynamic characteristics of an
instrument.
 Functional Elements

1. Primary sensing element,

2. Variable conversion element,

3. Variable manipulation element,

4. Data transmission element,

5. Data presentation element,

6. Data storage element

Primary sensing element

Primary sensing element, first receives energy from the measured

medium and produces an output depending on the measured quantity.

Variable conversion element

Variable conversion element, converts the output signal of the primary

sensing element to some other more suitable variable.


Variable manipulation element

Variable manipulation element change in numerical value

according to some definite rule but preserves the physical nature of

variable e.g. an electronic amplifier.

 Data transmission element

Data transmission element, when the functional elements are separated, it becomes

necessary to transmit the data from one to another.

For Example: A shaft, bearing assembly, a satellite or radio for transmitting signals

from satellite to ground by radio etc.

Data presentation element

 Data presentation element, presents the information about the measured quantity to one

of the human senses for monitoring, control or analysis purpose.

 Some pointer on a scale, recording of pen over chart.

 Data storage / playback element, tape recorder/memory

Loading Effect of an Instrument

 Instrument always extract some energy from the measured

quantity , which effects the measurement and makes a perfect
measurement theoretically impossible.

 Good instruments are designed to minimize this effect “Loading

Effect” but it is always present to some degree.