Sri Krishna Arts and Science Computer Technology: Course Coordinator Dr. V. S. Anita Sofia Prof. & Head

Sri Krishna Arts and Science
Computer Technology
19CTP14- Artificial Intelligence
Class: II M.Sc IT/CT
Classroom Code: 63srbvk
Course Coordinator
Dr. V. S. Anita Sofia
Prof. & Head
SKASC 1
Agenda
• First order Logic
First Order Logic
• First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial
intelligence. It is an extension to propositional logic.
• FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language

statements in a concise way.
• First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order

predicate logic.
• First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information about

the objects in a more easy way and can also express the relationship
between those objects.
First Order Logic
• Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits,
wumpus, ......
• Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is
adjacent, or n-any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has
color, comes between
• Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
• As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
• Syntax
• Semantics
Syntax of First-Order logic
• The syntax of FOL determines which collection of

symbols is a logical expression in first-order logic.
• The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic

are symbols.
Basic Elements of First-order logic
Atomic sentences
• Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic.
These sentences are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a
parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
• We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......,

term n).
• Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).
Complex Sentences
• Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences
using connectives.
• First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:
• Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.
• Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which

binds two atoms together in a statement.
• Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two

parts, the first part x is the subject of the statement and second
part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.
Quantifiers in First-order logic
• A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and
quantification specifies the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
• These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range and scope
of the variable in the logical expression. There are two types of quantifier:
• Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
• Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).
Universal Quantifier
• Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation,

which specifies that the statement within its range is true
for everything or every instance of a particular thing.
• The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀,

which resembles an inverted A.
• If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:
• For all x
• For each x
• For every x.
• Example:
• All man drink coffee.

∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

It will be read as:
There are all x where
x is a man who drink coffee.
Existential Quantifier
• Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that
the statement within its scope is true for at least one instance of
something.
• It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E.
• When it is used with a predicate variable then it is called as an

existential quantifier.
Existential Quantifier
Properties of Quantifiers
• In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
• In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
• ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

Examples of FOL using quantifier
• 1. All birds fly.
In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)."
And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.
∀x bird(x) →fly(x).
• 2. Every man respects his parent.

In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where x=man, and y=
parent.
Since there is every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as follows:
∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).
• 3. Some boys play cricket.
In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys, and y= game.
Since there are some boys so we will use ∃, and it will be represented as:
∃x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).
• 4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.

In this question, the predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and y=
subject.
Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation, so following
representation for this:
¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].
• 5. Only one student failed in Mathematics.
In this question, the predicate is "failed(x, y)," where x= student, and y=
subject.
Since there is only one student who failed in Mathematics, so we will use
following representation for this:
∃(x) [ student(x) → failed (x, Mathematics) ∧∀ (y) [¬(x==y) ∧
student(y) → ¬failed (x, Mathematics)].
Free and Bound Variables
• The quantifiers interact with variables which appear in a suitable way. There
are two types of variables in First-order logic which are given below:
• Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it occurs

outside the scope of the quantifier.
• Example: ∀x ∃(y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.
• Bound Variable: A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it

occurs within the scope of the quantifier.
• Example: ∀x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound variables.

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Sri Krishna Arts and Science

19CTP14- Artificial Intelligence

Class: II M.Sc IT/CT

Classroom Code: 63srbvk

• FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language

• First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order

• First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information about

• As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:

• The syntax of FOL determines which collection of

• The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic

• We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......,

• Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

• First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

• Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.

• Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which

• Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two

• Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation,

• The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀,

• All man drink coffee.

∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

• It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E.

• When it is used with a predicate variable then it is called as an

• In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.

• In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.

• ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

• 2. Every man respects his parent.

• 4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.

• Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it occurs

• Example: ∀x ∃(y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.

• Bound Variable: A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it

• Example: ∀x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound variables.

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