ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

(BKC4543)

CHAPTER 1
PREPARED BY: DR AZILAH AJIT @ ABD
AZIZ
Hp: 0199710201
 ASSESSMENT
Assessments Distribution
Test 1 20%
Quizzes 10%
Final Examination 40%
IPBL 1 (water) 10%
Assignment 5%
Report (air ) 5%
Presentation (IPBL 1) 10%
TOTAL 100%
TEST
DATE: 2 APRIL 2020
TIME:8.00 PM – 9.30 PM
VENUE: VDK 01, 03, 04, 05,07
TOPIC COVER: CHAPTER WATER AND WASTEWATER
 REFERENCES
1. Peavy, H.S., Rowe, D.R. and Tchobanoglous, G., Environmental
Engineering, McGraw Hill, 1985.
2. Mackenze, I.D., Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 4th Edition,
Davis A. Cornell, Mc Graw Hill, 2008.
3. Sawyer, C.N. Chemistry for Environmental Engineerin. 4th Edition,
McGraw Hill, 1994.
4. Martin, T.A. and David, W.H. Fundamental of Environmental Engineering.
2003.
5. Environmental Quality Act 1974 (Subsidiary Legislation), International
Law Book, Service June 2002.
COURSE CONTENT
Chapter 1: Introduction of environmental engineering & water,
wastewater quality management
 Environmental system overview
 Wastewater characteristics
 Terminology in WWT
 Effluents standard according to Environmental Quality Acts
Chapter 2: Engineered system for water and wastewater treatment
 Primary treatment
 Secondary treatment
 Sludge treatment
 Advanced wastewater treatment
Chapter 3: Air pollution control
 Classification of air pollution
 Air pollution and atmosphere despersion
- Factors affecting of dispersion of Air pollution
- Dispersion prediction
 Engineered system for air pollution control
- Control Device for particulate contaminants
- Control Device for gas contaminants
Chapter 4: Solid and Hazardous waste
management
 Characterization of solid and hazardous waste
 Engineered system for solid waste management
 Hazardous waste management

IPBL 1: Case study for wastewater analysis

IPBL 2: Case study for air pollution
Chapter 1
Environmental
Engineering? Human population (from
environmental factors)

concern Protecting the environment

Improve environmental quality

(human health & well being)
 • Environment can be defined as one’s surroundings
• For an environmental engineer the environment may refer to a
very localized area in which a specific problem must be
addressed
Biosp
A thin shell that encapsulates the earth.

here
 life-sustaining resources such as air, food
and water are withdrawn from the
biosphere.

 Waste products in gaseous, liquid and

solid forms been discharged.
 Impact of Humans to
Environment
• Satisfying natural needs - Human used natural resources to satisfy their needs-
unprocessed resources
• However, pollutions start overload when human turned to satisfy their acquired
needs.
• Due to industrial revolution-items being processed or manufactured. (e.g. Processed
foods and beverages).
• Anthropogenic – human induced pollutants have overloaded the system
Impact of
Environment to
1.
2.
Polluted environment : to health and well being.
Health concerns:
• Harmful chemical & biological agents

Humans • Direct & indirect effect to health

• Chemical toxin
• People in crowded cities suffered from ill effects
– air pollutants
The role of environmental
engineer..
 Adapt the principles of natural mechanisms to
engineered systems for pollution control. e.g.:
containers used for disposal of hazardous
wastes such as toxic chemicals and radioactive
materials must be isolated from the
environment.

 Understand the biological and chemical

reactions involved in processes, the chemistry
and microbiology aspects.

 To build a bridge between biology and

technology by applying all the techniques
available.
 Protect the environment from the
potentially harmful effects of human
activity.

 Protection of human populations from

the effects of adverse environmental
factors.

 Improvement of environmental quality

for human health and well-being.
Environmental Legislation &
Regulation in Malaysia
Environmental Quality Act (1974)
 An Act relating to the prevention, abatement, control of pollution
and enhancement of the environment.
[15 April 1975, P.U. (B) 113/1975]

 Faced with worsening water pollution caused by the three

traditional industries of tin mining, natural rubber, and palm oil
on the one hand, and by new industrial pollution on the other,
brought about by industrialization policies pursued since the late
1960s and fostered by foreign capital inflow, Malaysia in 1974
enacted its first framework environmental legislation in the form
of the Environmental Quality Act 1974.
Environmental Quality Act (Amendment) 2001

Example (part of the amendment) :

Constituents of
world’s water
Approximately, 98 % of water on the
earth is salt water.
The remaining 2 %  87 % of fresh
water is locked in glaciers and polar
ice caps.
12 % in the ground.
And leaving only 1 % of fresh water
available for human use from lakes and
river.
Measurement of
Water Quality
 Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater
Salinity is the saltiness
 Water quality parameter concentration: or dissolved salt content
 Weight of solute per weight of solution (wt per wt) of a body of water or in
 Parts per million (ppm) solution = 1 mg solute per kg (10 6 mg) soil. 
 Part per thousand (ppt) solution = 1 g solute per kg (i.e. salinity)
 Weight per volume solution (wt /v)
 In the laboratory it is easier to measure volume of water using volumetric containers
 Unit : mg/L = ppm
 1 liter of water = 1 kg (distilled water 3.89oC)
Water Quality
Parameters Total Suspended solid (TSS)
Temperature
1. Physical Parameters Turbidity
Taste & Odor
PART 1

Total dissolved solid (TDS)

2. Chemical Parameters Alkalinity

Hardness
Fluoride & Metals
Organic compounds Nitrogen
Nutrients Phosphorus

3. Biological Parameters Pathogens Organism

Indicator Organism
Physical Parameters

NH
Physical
Parameters
1 - Total Suspended Solids
(TSS)
 Solid suspended in water may consists of inorganic or organic particles

or immiscible liquids. Natural contaminants and

are common in surface
 Causes:
water.
 Inorganic – clay, silt, soil.
 Organic – plant fibers, biological solids (bacteria, etc.)
 Immiscible liquids – oils and greases (constituents of wastewater).
 Impact: unpleasant smell & may cause disease (cause by live
Example 1
 Example 2.1: Determining the concentration of suspended solid: A filterable residue analysis is run on a
sample of water as follows. Prior to filtering, the crucible and filter pad are kept overnight in the drying oven,
cooled, and the dry mass (tare mass) of the pair determined to be 54.352 g. 250 mL of the sample is drawn
through a filter pad contained in the porous-bottom crucible. The crucible and filter pad are then placed in a
drying oven at 104°C and dried until a constant mass of 54.389 g is reached. Determine the suspended solids
concentration of the sample.
 Solution
1. Mass of solids removed
Tare mass  solids  54.389 g
 Tare mass  54.352 g
Remember! The
mass of solids  0.037 g
concentration must be
in mg/L
2.Concentration of the solids
mg solids 1000mL / L
 conc in mg / L
mL of sample
37 1000
 148 mg / L
250
2 –Turbidity
 Turbidity is a measure of the extent to which light is
either absorbed or scattered by suspended material in
water.
 For potable water supplies measurement.
 Causes: Is caused by suspended substances in the
water such as clay, silt, fine organic materials,
planktons etc.
 Impact: Give unpleasant apparent, interfere light
penetration.

Turbidity measurement is an optical

measurement - suspended matter disperse light
percentage.
Unit NTU (nephelometry turbidity units).
3 - Color
 Pure water is colorless
 However, dissolved solids that remain after removal of suspended will

affect the color – true color

 The yellowish-brown color cause by leaves, weeds, wood.
 Reddish cause by iron oxides & brown or black cause by manganese

oxides.
 Not aesthetically acceptable to the general public (consumers tend to

choose clear, non colored water).

 Measurement: by spectrophotometer
 compare color with standardized colored materials.
4 - Taste and Odor
 Source: Many mineral substances that produce taste

but no odor.
 Inorganic: taste (no odor) e.g.: metallic salts: salty

and bitter.
 Organic : taste + odor

 Minerals, metals, salts, biological reactions and

constituents of wastewater.
 Impact: Consumers find taste and odor aesthetically

displeasing.
 Measurement: Quantitative test, employ human sense.
5 - Temperature
 Temperature of surface water governs to a large extent the

biological species present and their rates of activity.

 Impact:
 Cooler water usually have a wider diversity of biological
species.
 At lower temp the rate of biological activity (growth,
reproduction, etc.) is slower, temp increased, biological
activity increases.
 Most chemical reactions involving dissolution of solids are
accelerated by increased temperatures.
 The solubility of gases decreased at high temperature.
 The viscosity of water increases with decreasing temperature.
Chemical Parameters

NH
Chemical
Parameters
Chemistry of Solutions:

The equivalence of an element or radical is defined as the number of hydrogen atoms that the element or
radical can hold in combination or can replace in reaction.

An equivalent (equiv) of an element or radical is its gram molecular mass divided by its equivalence.

A milliequivalent (meq) is the molecular mass expressed milligrams (mg) divided by the equivalent.

NH
1- Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS)
 Sources:
 Dissolved substance may be organic or inorganic
(includes minerals, metals and gases).
 Impact:
 Produce aesthetically displeasing color, taste,
odor and might be carcinogenic.
 Not all dissolved substances are undesirable in
water. (e.g.: mineral water).
 Measurement:
 Ions balance – common ions (summed in equivalent basis) to represents
approximate TDS
 As a check, the sum of the anions should be equal to the sum of cations
because the electroneutrality must be preserved.
Example 2
Example 2-5: Testing for ion balance:
Tests for common ions are run on a sample of water and the results are shown below. If a 10 % error
in the balance is acceptable, should the analysis be considered complete?
Constituents
Ca 2  55 mg / L HCO3  250 mg / L
Mg 2 18 mg / L SO42  60 mg / L
Na   98 mg / L Cl   89 mg / L
 𝑚𝑒𝑞
=
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑞
𝑥 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
 
 Solution: convert mg/L to meq/L 𝐿 𝐿 𝑚𝑔
meq  mg 
 concentrat ion ion  
1 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
L  L  equivalent mass
given
atomic or molecular mass
where : equivalent mass 
valence
  Calculate percent of error:
Component Concentration, Equivalent mass Equiv
mg/L (mg/meq) Conc. 8.49  7.86
meq/L 100  8%
Ca2+ 55 20.0 2.75
7.86
Mg2+ 18 12.2 1.48
8% 10%  accept analysis
Na+ 98 23.0 4.26
 Bar diagram- ion balance:
Total cations 8.49
HCO3- 250 61.0 4.10
Meq/L 0 2.75 4.23 8.49
SO42- 60 48.0 1.25
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+
Cl- 89 35.5 2.51
Total anions 7.86 HCO3- SO42- Cl-
Meq/L 0 4.10 5.23 7.86
2. Alkalinity
 Defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions (neutralize

acids).
 Sources:

 Constituents of alkalinity in natural water include CO 32- (carbonate), HCO3-(bicarbonate), OH-

(hydroxide) etc.
 Resultant from dissolution of mineral substances in soil and atmosphere.

 Originate from CO2, a constituent of the atmosphere and a product of microbial

decomposition of organic material.

 𝐶
  𝑂 2 +𝐻 2 𝑂 𝐻
  2 𝐶 𝑂3 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑
  𝐶 𝑂 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑
𝐻
  2 𝐶𝑂 3 𝑏𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
−
 𝐻 +¿+ 𝐻𝐶 𝑂3❑ ¿  

𝑂3❑−
2−
𝐻𝐶
   𝐻 +¿+𝐶 𝑂 3❑ ¿
𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
 
2−
𝐶
  𝑂 3❑ +𝐻 2 𝑂 𝐻𝐶
  𝑂3❑− +𝑂 𝐻 − h𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
 

 Impact:

 Utilization of the bicarbonate ion as a carbon source by algae can drive the reaction to the right

(carbonate) and result in substantial of OH-

 Heavy algal growths often has high pH values (9 to 10).

 Relative quantities of the alkalinity species are pH dependent (Fig 2.3 page 32)

 Give a bitter taste to water.

 Reaction between alkaline constituent and cation (+ve ion) produces precipitation in pipe.
 Measurement:

 Measure by titrating water with an acid and determining the hydrogen equivalent.

 Alkalinity expressed as ‘mg/L as CaCO3’.

 E.g. : 0.02 N H2SO4 is used, 1mL of acid will neutralize 1 mg of alkalinity as CaCO3.
 H+ from the acid react with the alkalinity according to the following equations:

H   OH   H 2O
CO32  H   HCO3
HCO3  H   H 2CO3
3. Hardness
 Defined as concentration of multivalent metallic cations in solution.

 At supersaturated conditions, the hardness cations will react with anions in the water to form a solid

precipitate.
 Classified as carbonate hardness and noncarbonate hardness.

 Sources:

 Calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese.

 Impacts:

 Hard water used in soap consumption will bring economic loss to the water user.

 Precipitate form on hardware- boiler scale: may cause economic loss through fouling of water

heaters and hot water pipes

 Precipitate in pipe – temperature and pH increased.
 Why is alkalinity and hardness reported as "mg/L as CaCO3"?

• Units of mg/L are a “mass dissolved in a liquid.”

• Reporting alkalinity as “mg/L as CaCO3” specifies that the sample has an alkalinity equal to that
of a solution with a certain amount of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) dissolved in water. 
• The alkalinity test does not actually measure a mass per volume.

mg meq
as CaCO3   equivalent mass for CaCO3
L L
equivalent mass for CaCO3  equivalent mass of Ca 2  equivalent mass of CO32
60
equivalent mass of CO32   30
2
equivalent mass for CaCO3  20  30  50
Example 3
Following is the bar diagram of water. Calculate the hardness in mg/L as CaCO3:

Meq/L 0 2.75 4.23 8.49

Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+

HCO3- SO42- Cl-

Meq/L 0 4.10 5.23 7.86

Total Hardness  =      Calcium Hardness      +      Magnesium Hardness 

Hardness (Ca2+ + Mg2+) = 4.23 meq/L

Equivalent mass for CaCO3 = 50.0 mg/meq
So, hardness = 4.23 x 50.0 = 211.5 mg/L as CaCO3
4. Fluoride &
Metals
 Fluoride
 In groundwater (few regions)

 Toxic to human and animal in large

quantity.
 Concentration of approximately 1.0 mg/L

in drinking water help to prevent dental

cavities in children.
 Excessive dosage of fluoride can also

result in bone fluorosis and other skeletal

Shaharuddin et al. (2009) Fluoride Concentration in Malaysian Drinking Water, American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 6 (4): 417-420.

NH
Metals
Nontoxic metals
sodium, aluminum, manganese, iron

Sodium: excessive concentration may cause bitter

taste and hazard to cardiac and kidney patients

Small quantities of iron and manganese may

cause color problems

Toxic metals
Arsenic, mercury, silver, barium, lead

Harmful to humans and animals

5. Organics Compounds
Biodegradable organics
 Consists of organics that can be utilized for food by naturally occurring microorganisms within a

reasonable length of time.

 Dissolved form: consists of starches, fats, proteins, alcohol etc.
 May cause color, taste, odor problems- main problem is action of microorganisms.
 Microbial utilization – can be oxidation/reduction.
 Aerobic (oxygen present) environment, the end products are stable and acceptable.
 Anaerobic (oxygen absent) environment, unstable product. When oxygen present, anaerobe products will

be oxidized to aerobe end products.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

 The amount of oxygen required by bacteria while

stabilizing decomposable organic matter under aerobic
conditions.

 Measured by determining the oxygen consumed from a

sample placed in an air-tight container and kept in a
controlled environment for preselected period of time.

 In a standard test : 300mL BOD bottle, incubated at 20OC

for 5 days, light is excluded to prevent algal growth that
may produce oxygen.

 Dissolved oxygen (DO) = oxygen solubility in water,

depends on temperature, TDS and atmospheric pressure
BOD of diluted sample is
calculated by:
𝐷𝑂
  𝐼 : 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝑂
  𝐹 : 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛

DO I ( mg / L)  DOF (mg / L) sample used , mL

BOD ( mg / L)  ,P
P size of bottle, mL

𝑃  : 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 .

 BOD5 represent oxygen consumed in 5 days.
 To calculate BOD for any period:

dLt 𝒌  :𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 , 𝑑 −1

  kL  t
dt
 dLt/dt = the rate at which organic polluting
matter is destroyed.

 kt
Lt  Lo e  
BOD and oxygen equivalent
relationship:
 yt represents the
yt  Lo  L t BODt of water
yt  Lo (1  e  kt )

 Value yt approaches Lo, indicating that the total/ultimate BOD (yu)

 yu = initial oxygen equivalent of the water Lo
yt
yu 
1  e  kt 
 Value of k for any given organic compound is temperature-dependent.
 k value increase with increasing temperature (because microbe more active at higher
temperature).
 Typical values of k are shown in Table 2.6 or can be determine using van’t Hoff-Arrhenius model:
T  20
kT  k 20 ,  1.047
Example 4
Example 2-9: BOD conversions The BOD5 of a wastewater is determined to be 150 mg/L at 20°C. The k
value is known to be 0.23 per day. What would the BOD8 be if the test were run at 15°C?

Solution:
1. Determine the ultimate BOD (yu)

y5
yu 
1  e  kt
150

1  e 0.235
 220mg / L
2. Correct the k value for 15°C.

kT  k 20 T  20


 0.23 1.047 5

 0.18
3. Calculate y8

yt  yu 1  e  kt 
y8  220(1  e 0.188 )
 168mg / L
Nonbiodegradable organics
 Resistant to biological degradation.
 Tannic & lignic acid, cellulose, phenols – biodegrade so slowly.
 Molecules with strong bond (polysaccharides) and ringed structure (benzene) are nonbiodegradable.
 Some organics are not biodegrade because they are toxic to organism (e.g.: pesticides; hydrocarbon

compound combined with chlorine)

 Measurement : Chemical oxygen demand (COD) test or Total organic carbon (TOC)
 COD: higher than BOD (more compound can be oxidized chemically)
6. Nutrients
 Elements essential to the

growth and reproduction of

organisms.
 Limiting factor nutrient:

nitrogen and phosphorus.

Nitrogen
 Constituents of proteins, chlorophyll and biological

compound.
 Upon death of plants or animals, complex organic matter

is broken down to simple forms by bacterial

decomposition (e.g.:proteinous matter).
 Proteins converted to amino acid and finally reduced to

ammonia (NH3).
 If oxygen present, NH3 oxidized to nitrite (NO2-) and

then to nitrate (NO3-).

Biological
Parameters
 Biological species – their present or absence may indicate in
general terms the characteristics of a given water body.

Pathogens
 capable of infecting, transmitting diseases to humans.

NH
Bacteria – single cell microbe
 Organism that derive both energy and
material from inorganic source – autotrophs.
 Bacteria that obtain both energy and material
from organic compound – heterotrophs.
 Aerobic heterotrophs require oxygen and
anaerobic heterotrophs utilize organics in the
absence of oxygen.
 Utilize sunlight for an energy source and
inorganic substance for a material source.
Helminths
 also known as parasitic worms.
 Contamination may result from human,
animals, and aquatic species.

Protozoa
 lowest form of animal life, unicellular organisms
 Highly adaptable in natural waters

NH
Pathogen
indicators
 Pathogen organisms
 Live and breed in host and disseminated through feces

 Small in quantity

 Their presence is hard to detect

 Indicators organisms – their presence shows that pollution has occurred and suggests the TYPE and

Level of pollution

NH
 Ideal indicator:

i. Be applicable to all types of water

ii. Always be present when pathogen are present
iii. Always be absent when pathogen are absent
iv. Lend itself to routine quantitative testing procedures without interference from confusion of results
v. Safety for lab personnel

 Typical indicators used are coliform groups.

 Coliforms groups : Fecal coliforms (E. Coli – indicator for fecal pollution, easy to grow).
 Determination experimental methods : Membrane Filtration Method and Most Probable Number

(MPN).

NH
Parameter measure : Total Coliform (TC)
1. Using membrane filter technique (pore do not exceed 0.45m)
 To determine the number of coliform organisms that are present in
water.
 Advantage : faster than MPN procedure and gives a direct count of the
number.
 Can be determine by passing a known volume of water sample through
a membrane filter that has a very small pore size. The bacteria are
retained on the filter then contacted with an agar that contains nutrients
necessary for the growth of the bacteria. After incubation, the coliform
colonies can be counted and the concentration in the original water
sample determined.
NH
2. Multiple-tube fermentation test
 Use lactose and other substances broth.
 3 set of 5 test tubes, consider positive with air bubble.
 Incubate 24  2 hours, 35  0.5ºC
 The dilution of the water sample is in sequence. 10 mL, 1 mL and 0.1 mL to use Most Probable
number (MPN) index.

NH
NH
      4
     3
 Example of a result      0
10ml
1ml
0.1 ml
 If the dilution for the above results is 10mL, 1mL and 0.1mL, Index MPN gives the results as 27
MPN/100mL
 If the dilution is at 1mL, 0.1mL and 0.01mL, the result should be 270MPN/100mL
 Thomas formula is used if the number combination is not in the MPN index

MPN no of positive tubes 100


100mL (total sample in mL in negative tubes )  (total sample in mL for all tubes )

NH