Hydrology

Measurement of Precipitation
ALI TARIQ
 Measurement of Precipitation

•Measure what ?
•Amount
•Intensity
•Location
•Pattern
 Measurement of Precipitation
• The amount of precipitation means the vertical depth
of water that would accumulate on a level surface, if
the precipitation remains where it falls.
• The amount of precipitation is measured in length
units (inches, ft., cm, etc.)
• Amount of precipitation per unit time is called the
intensity of precipitation or rate of precipitation.
 Measurement of Precipitation
• The precipitation is measured by the network of rain
gauges.
• There are two types of rain gauges:
• Non-recording rain gauge. (Standard rain gauge)
• Recording rain gauge
 Rain Gauges
• The main difference between these rain gauges is that
with the help of recording rain gauges we get the rain
recorded automatically with respect to time, so
intensity of rain fall is also known whereas an observer
has to take readings from non recording rain gauge for
rain and he has to record the time also, for calculation
of intensity of rain fall.
• Measure What?
• Depth of water on a flat surface
• Depth is assumed to be same as surroundings
 Rain Gauges
• Container of varying dimensions and heights
• U.S Standard
• 200mm diameter of collector
• 600mm height
• Requirements
• Rim falls away vertically
• Prevent splashing
• Narrow neck prevents evaporation
 Non-Recording Rain Gauges
• The standard gauge of U.S. Weather Bureau has a collector
of 200 mm diameter and 600 mm height.
• Rain passes from a collector into a cylindrical measuring
tube inside the overflow can.
• The measuring tube has a cross sectional area 1/10th of the
collector, so that 2.5 mm rain fall will fill the tube to 25 mm
depth.
• A measuring stick is marked in such a way that 1/10th of a cm
depth can be measured.
• In this way net rainfall can be measured to the nearest 1
mm.
Two types of standard rain gauge
 Non-Recording Rain Gauges
• The collector and tube are removed when snow is
expected.
• The snow collected in the outer container or overflow
can is melted, poured into the measuring tube and
then measured.
• Sources of Error
• Rainfall measured by the rain gauge might have
some errors.
• For example some water is used to wet the surface
of instrument; the rain recorded may be less than
the actual rainfall due to the direction of the rainfall
as affected by wind.
 Non-Recording Rain Gauges
• Sources of Error
• Dents in the collector and tube may also cause error.
Some water is absorbed by the measuring stick.
• Losses due to evaporation can also take place.
• The volume of stick replaces some water which
causes some error.
 Recording Rain Gauges
 This is also called self‐recording, automatic or
integrating rain gauge.
• Analogue Devices
• Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
• Float Type Rain Gauge
• Digital Devices
• Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
• Optical Rain Gauge
 Float Type Rain Gauge
• This type of rain gauge also has a receiver and a float
chamber along with some recording mechanism or
arrangement.
• In this type the rain is led into a float chamber
containing a light, hollow float.
• The vertical movement of the float as the level of
water rises is recorded on a chart with the help of a
pen connected to float.
• The chart is wrapped around a rotating clock driven
drum.
 Float Type Rain Gauge
• To provide a continuous record for 24 hours the float
chamber has either to be very large, or some
automatic means are provided for emptying the float
chamber quickly when it becomes full, the pen then
returning to the bottom of the chart.
 Float Type Rain Gauge
• This is usually done with some sort of siphoning
arrangement.
• This arrangement activates when the gauge records a
certain fixed amount of rain (mostly 10 mm of rainfall).
• Snow can not be measured by this type of rain gauge.
 Weighing Type Rain Gauge
• The weighing type rain gauge consists of a receiver, a
bucket, a spring balance and some recording
arrangement.
• The weighing type gauge weighs the rain or snow
which falls into a bucket which is set on a lever
balance.
• The weight of the bucket and content is recorded on a
chart by a clock driven drum.
• The record is in the form of a graph, one axis of which
is in depth units and the other has time.
 Weighing Type Rain Gauge
• The records show the accumulation of precipitation.
• Weighing type gauges operate from 1 to 2 months
without stopping.
• But normally one chart is enough only for 24 hours.
• This type of rain gauge has advantage of measuring
snow also.
• The receiver is removed when snow is expected.
• Figure shows schematic sketch of a weighing type rain
gauge.
Weighing Type Rain Gauge
 Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge
• This type of gauge is equipped with a remote recorder
located inside the office which is away from the actual site.
• The gauge has two compartments pivoted in such a way that
one compartment receives rain at one time.
• A certain amount of rain (usually 0.25 mm) fills one
compartment and over balances it so that it tips, emptying
into a reservoir and bringing the second compartment of the
bucket into place beneath the funnel of receiver.
• As the bucket is tipped by each 0.25 mm of rain it actuates
an electrical circuit, causing a pen to mark on a revolving
drum.
 Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge
• This type of gauge is not suitable for measuring snow
without heating the collector.
• Plotting is similar to that of other recording rain
gauges. A Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge is shown in
Figure.
Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge
 Optical Rain Gauge (ORG)
• The ORG is mounted on a small pole.
• The ORG sends a beam of light (which you cannot see)
from one of its ends to a detector at the other end.
• When raindrops fall, they break the beam.
• The rain rate is measured by the ORG by measuring
how often the beam is broken.
• The rain rate can be used to calculate the total
amount of rain that has fallen in any given period.
• ORG measures the rate of rainfall in millimeters per
hour (mm/hr).
Optical Rain Gauge (ORG)
Optical Rain Gauge (ORG)
 Sources of Error
• Mistakes in reading the scale of gauge.
• Dents in collector rim may change its receiving area.
• Instrumental error in gauge or in their recording or
measuring arrangements.
• Some rainwater may get lost due to splash from the
collector.
• Some initial rainwater may get lost in moistening
gauge funnel and inside surfaces.
• Blowing wind may tilt the rains from vertical which
thus brings less rain catch in the gauge.
 Advantages of Recording Rain Gauges
• Rainfall is recorded automatically, therefore no need
of attendant.
• Recording rain gauge also gives intensity of rainfall at
any time, while non-recording gauge gives only total
rainfall for time interval.
• Recording rain gauges can be installed far off places as
no need of attendant.
• Possibility of human error is obviated.
Disadvantages of Recording Rain Gauges
• Costly in comparison to non-recording gauges
• Error in recording rainfall due to fault in electrical or
mechanical mechanism.
 Remedial measures for errors in
precipitation measurement
• Removal of error due to dents obviously needs repair
of the instrument.
• For rain recorded with dents a correction should be
applied.
• Inclined instrument needs to be reinstalled.
• The correction factor however can be calculated from
the angle of inclination.
• For wind protection certain wind shields are designed
and used which are called Splash Guards.
• Proper setting of gauge above ground level is
necessary.
 Remedial measures for errors in
precipitation measurement
• Example
• A rain gauge recorded 125 mm of precipitation.
• It was found later that the gauge was inclined at an
angle of 20 degree with the vertical.
• Find the actual precipitation.
Solution:
P (measured) = 125 mm
Angle of inclination (θ) = 20o with the vertical
P (actual) = P(measured)/cos(θ) = 125/cos20o = 133 mm
 Rain Gauge Network
• The number of rain gauges and their distribution
affect the nature of collected precipitation data.
• The larger the number of rain gauges the more
representative will be the data collected.
• But on the other hand we have to observe other
factors also, like economy of the project, accessibility
of certain areas and topography of the area.
• So, one has to look for some optimum solution.
 Rain Gauge Network
• In this regard the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
has made following recommendations for minimum number
of rain gauges in a catchment:
• In comparatively flat regions, the ideal is at least one
station for 230 – 345 sq. miles.
• However one station for 345 – 1155 sq. miles is also
acceptable.
 Rain Gauge Network
• In mountainous regions, the ideal is at least one station for
35 – 95 sq. miles.
• However one station for 95 – 385 sq. miles is also
acceptable.