RADIO

ACCESS
NETWORK
EVOLUTION OF MOILE RADIO
First generation(1G):
• They were analog cell phones and were introduced in 1980.
• In 1979, the first cellular system in the world became operational by
Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) in Tokyo, Japan.
• All the systems offered handover and roaming capability but the
cellular networks were unable to interoperate between countries. This
was the main drawback of First Generation mobile networks.
• 1G has low capacity unreliable handoff, poor voice links and no
security since voice calls were played back in radio towers making
these calls susceptible to unwanted.
 Second generation(2G):
• 2G is the Second-Generation wireless cell phones, based on digital
technologies and in early 1990’s.
• In 1991 2G was launched in Finland.
• 2G provided services such as text message, picture messages and
MMS.
• 2G has greater security for both sender and receiver. All text messages
are digitally encrypted, which allows for the transfer of data in such a
way that only intended receiver can receive and read it.
• 2G system uses digital mobile access technology such as TDMA and
CDMA.
• TDMA divides signal in time slots while as CDMA allocates each user
a special code to communicate over a multiplex physical channel.
 3G:
• 3G technologies enable network operators to offer users a wider range of
more advanced services while achieving greater network capacity through
improved spectral efficiency.
• Services include wide area wireless voice telephony, video calls, and
broadband wireless data, mobile television, GPS (global positioning
system) and video conferencing all in a mobile environment.
• 3G has the following enhancements over 2G and previous networks:
 Enhanced audio and video streaming.
 Several Times higher data speed.
 Video-conferencing support.
 Web and WAP browsing at higher speeds.
 IPTV (TV through the Internet) support.
4G:
• Instead of hybrid technology used in 3G with the combination of CDMA
and IS-95 a new technology OFDMA is introduced 4G.
• In OFDMA, the concept is again of division multiple accesses but this is
neither time like TDMA nor code divided CDMA rather frequency
domain equalization process symbolizes as OFDMA.
• In 4G mobile technology OFDMA is going to introduce in which data
packets sends by dividing the channel into a narrow band for the greater
efficiency.
• 3GPP Organization is going to introduce two major wireless standards;
LTE and IEEE802.16m. Former is granted permission for the further
process while second is under consideration and that will become a part
of 4G mobile technology.
5G:
• 5Gnetwork is assumed as the perfection level of wireless
communication in mobile technology.
• Cable network is now become the memory of past.
• Mobiles are not only a communication tool but also serve many
other purposes.
• All the previous wireless technologies are entertaining the ease of
telephone and data sharing but 5G is bringing a new touch and
making the life real mobile life.
GSM
 The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a second
generation (2G) standard for mobile networks.
 The GSM standard operates on three different carrier frequencies: the
900 MHz band, which was used by the original GSM system; the 1800
MHz band, which was added to support the swelling number of
subscribers and the 1900 MHz frequency, which is used mainly in the
U.S.
 Although GSM is based on the time division multiple access (TDMA)
system, its technology uses digital signaling and speech channels and is
considered a second generation (2G) mobile phone system.
 The GSM standard has given birth to wireless services like General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
(EDGE).
 Its end users were the first to take advantage of an inexpensive
implementation of SMS (short message system), which is more popularly
known as texting.
 GSM phones may be identified by the presence of a Subscriber Identity
Module (SIM). This tiny object, which is about as wide as a finger, is a
removable smart card that contains a user’s subscription information, as
well as some contact entries. This SIM card allows a user to switch from
one GSM phone to another.
 One of the main advantages of the GSM standard is the ability to roam
and switch carriers by using individual mobile units
GSM ARCHITECTURE
The GSM network architecture consists of

three major subsystems:

 Mobile Station (MS)

 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

MOBILE STATION
 A mobile station communicates across the air interface with a base station
transceiver in the same cell in which the mobile subscriber unit is located.
 he MS communicates the information with the user and modifies it to the
transmission protocols if the air-interface to communicate with the BSS.
 The user’s voice information is interfaced with the MS through a
microphone and speaker for the speech, keypad, and display for short
messaging, and the cable connection for other data terminals.
 The MS has two elements. The Mobile Equipment (ME) refers to the
physical device, which comprises of transceiver, digital signal processors,
and the antenna. The second element of the MS is the GSM is the
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM card is unique to the GSM
system. It has a memory of 32 KB.
BASE STATION SUBSYSTEM
 A base station subsystem consists of a base station controller and one
or more base transceiver station. Each Base Transceiver Station
defines a single cell.
 A cell can have a radius of between 100m to 35km, depending on the
environment. A Base Station Controller may be connected with a BTS.
 It may control multiple BTS units and hence multiple cells. There are
two main architectural elements in the BSS – the Base Transceiver
Subsystem (BTS) and the Base Station Controller (BSC).
 The interface that connects a BTS to a BSC is called the A-bis
interface. The interface between the BSC and the MSC is called the A
interface, which is standardised within GSM.
NETWORK AND SWITCHING SUBSYSTEM
 The NSS is responsible for the network operation. It provides the link between
the cellular network and the Public switched telecommunicates Networks
(PSTN or ISDN or Data Networks).
 The NSS controls handoffs between cells in different BSSs, authenticates user
and validates their accounts, and includes functions for enabling worldwide
roaming of mobile subscribers. In particular the switching subsystem consists
of:
 Mobile switch center (MSC)

 Home location register (HLR)

 Visitor location Register (VLR)

 Authentications center (Auc)

 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

 Interworking Functions (IWF)

 HLR - The HLR is database software that handles the management of the
mobile subscriber account. It stores the subscriber address, service
locations, forwarding address, authentication/ciphering keys, and billings
information.
 VLR - The visitor location register maintains information about mobile
subscriber thatis currently physically in the range covered by the
switching center. When a mobile subscriber roams from one LA (Local
Area) to another, current location is automatically updated in the VLR.
When a mobile station roams into anew MSC area, if the old and new
LA’s are under the control of two different VLRs, the VLR connected to
the MSC will request data about the mobile stations from the HLR. The
entry on the old VLR is deleted and an entry is created in the new VLR
by copying the database from the HLR.
 AUC - The AuC database holds different algorithms that are used
for authentication and encryptions of the mobile subscribers that
verify the mobile user’s identity and ensure the confidentiality of
each call. The AuC holds the authentication and encryption keys for
all the subscribers in both the home and visitor location register.

 EIR - The EIR is another database that keeps the information about
the identity of mobile equipment such the International mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI) that reveals the details about the
manufacturer, country of production, and device type. This
information is used to prevent calls from being misused, to prevent
unauthorised or defective MSs
 IWF - It is a system in the PLMN that allows for non speech
communication between the GSM and the other networks. The
tasks of an IWF are particularly to adapt transmission parameters
and protocol conversions. The physical manifestations of an IWF
may be through a modem which is activated by the MSC
dependent on the bearer service and the destination network. The
OSS (Operational Support Systems) supports operation and
maintenance of the system and allows engineers to monitor,
diagnose, and troubleshoot every aspect of the GSM network.
CDMA
 CDMA is a form of multiplexing, which allows numerous signals to occupy a
single transmission channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. The
technology is used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems
in the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz bands.
 DMA employs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in combination
with spread spectrum technology.
 Audio input is first digitized into binary elements. The frequency of the
transmitted signal is then made to vary according to a defined pattern (code).
 so it can be intercepted only by a receiver whose frequency response is
programmed with the same code, so it follows exactly along with the
transmitter frequency. 
 The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz wide.
 CDMA networks use a scheme called soft handoff, which minimizes signal
breakup as a handset passes from one cell to another.
 The combination of digital and spread-spectrum modes supports several times as
many signals per unit bandwidth as analog modes.

Generation of CDMA signal

CDMA ARCHITECTURE
1. Mobile Station (MS): Two Blocks
 Mobile Equipment (ME)
 Subscribers Identity Module (SIM)

Function of Mobile Station

 Personal Mobility
 IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
 IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity)
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 Base Station Controller (BSC)
 BTS : Base Transceiver station
 It defines the cell .
 It handles the radio link protocol with the mobile station
 BSC: Base station Controller
 It manages radio resources for one or more BTS.
 Allocation and Deallocation of channels.
 Transmitter power control.
 Handoff control
WCDMA
 W-CDMA (Wideband Code-Division Multiple Access), an ITU standard
derived from Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA), is officially known
as IMT-2000 direct spread.
 W-CDMA is a third-generation (3G) mobile wireless technology that
promises much higher data speeds to mobile and portable wireless devices.
 W-CDMA can support mobile/portable voice, images, data, and video
communications at up to 2 Mbps (local area access) or 384 Kbps (wide
area access).
 The input signals are digitized and transmitted in coded, spread-spectrum
mode over a broad range of frequencies.
 WCDMA is able to artificially increase a signal's bandwidth. It does so
by modulating each baseband symbol with a binary or quaternary
signature with a much higher rate than that of the original data symbol.
 WCDMA features two modes:
• Frequency Division Duplex (FDD): Separates users by employing both
codes as well as frequencies. One frequency is used for the uplink,
while another is used for the downlink.
• Time Division Duplex (TDD): Separates users by employing codes,
frequencies and time, wherein the same frequency is used for both
uplink and downlink.
LTE
 LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a standard for 4G wireless
broadband technology that offers increased network capacity and
speed to mobile device users.
 LTE offers higher peak data transfer rates up to
100 Mbps downstream and 30 Mbps upstream. It also provides
reduced latency, scalable bandwidth capacity and backward-
compatibility with existing GSM and UMTS technology. Future
developments could yield peak throughput on the order of 300
Mbps.
 Users enjoy the benefits of the LTE standard compared to older
standards, such as 3G and HSPA. Users can see improved
streaming, downloads and even uploads. Globally, the average
LTE download speed is 13.5 Mbps.
 As a result, mobile device carriers can expect consumers to burn
through data more quickly, which can lead to overage charges on
data plans. LTE can also connect consumers with services in real
time. Users can talk to others without experiencing any lag or
stutters.
 The upper layers of LTE are based on TCP/IP, which will likely
result in an all-IP network similar to the current state of wired
communications. LTE supports mixed data, voice, video and
messaging traffic.
 LTE uses OFDM (orthogonal frequency division multiplexing) and,
in later releases, MIMO (multiple input, multiple output) antenna
technology similar to that used in the IEEE 802.11n wireless local
area network (WLAN) standard.
 The higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the receiver enabled by
MIMO, along with OFDM, provides improved wireless network
coverage and throughput, especially in dense urban areas.
 LTE Advanced (LTE-A), which was meant to improve the current
standard, was first tested in 2011 in Spain. LTE-A improves upon
the radio technology and architecture of LTE. LTE-A has been
tested to show that the download and upload speeds are around two
to three times faster than standard LTE.
RAN
 A radio access network (RAN) is part of a
mobile telecommunication system. It implements a radio access
technology.
 Conceptually, it resides between a device such as a mobile phone,
a computer, or any remotely controlled machine and provides
connection with its core network(CN).
 Depending on the standard, mobile phones and other wireless
connected devices are varyingly known as user equipment (UE),
terminal equipment, mobile station (MS), etc. RAN functionality
is typically provided by a silicon chip residing in both the core
network as well as the user equipment. 
 The RAN is a major component of wireless telecommunications and
has evolved through the generations of mobile networking leading up
to 5G.
 An RAN provides access and coordinates the management of
resources across the radio sites. A handset or other device is wirelessly
connected to a backbone, or core network, and the RAN sends its
signal to various wireless end points, so it can travel with other
networks’ traffic. A single handset/phone could be connected at the
same time to multiple RANs, sometimes called dual-mode handsets.
 RAN components include a base station and antennas that cover a
specific region depending on their capacity. Silicon chips in both the
core network as well as the user equipment provide RAN
functionality.
 The RAN controller is in control of the nodes connected to it. The
network controller – which performs radio resource management,
mobility management and data encryption – connects to the circuit-
switched core network and the packet-switched core network, depending
on the type of RAN.
 The most recent evolution of RAN architecture divides the user plane
from the control plane into separate elements. User data messages can
then be exchanged by the RAN controller through one software-defined
networking (SDN) switch and a second set through a control-based
interface. 
 This separation allows the RAN to be more flexible, accommodating for
network functions virtualization (NFV) techniques such as network
slicing and high MIMO that are necessary for 5G.
 The radio access network (RAN) has been in use since the beginning of
cellular technology and has evolved through the generations of mobile
communications (1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and in anticipation of the
forthcoming 5G ).
CLOUD RAN
Overview
 Mobile Transmission volume is forecasted to grow by 13 folds
from 2012-2017.
 Add complex structure of Heterogeneous and Small cell Networks.
 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) .
 inter-cell interference levels and high costs .
 Total Cost of Ownership
 CAPital EXpenditure (CAPEX) and Operating EXpenditure
(OPEX)
 Adapt to non- uniform traffic and utilizes the resources.
 Can be added and upgraded easily.
 Virtualized BBU Pool can be shared by different network
operators as a cloud service.
 Increase spectral efficiency and throughput.
 Delay during intra- BBU Pool handover reduced.
 Centralization Virtualization
 Improving performance.  Network function
 OPEX reduction 30%- virtualization (NFV).

50%.  Reduce processing

 Antenna is needed at the requirements by as much as
cell site. 75%.
 Cheaper to centralize  Switch between base
RAN. station vendors.
ARCHITECTURE OF C-RAN
Traditional Mobile network
 The area in which mobile networks covers is divided into cells.
 Hence mobile networks are called as cellular networks.
 In a cellular network, communication with a base station.
 Base station: Baseband processing module and Radio module.
 Baseband processing ( coding, modulation, sampling ,
quantization) ; radio module (digital processing, filtering, power
amplification)
 Traditional Architecture
 The baseband processing and radio
integrated in a base station.
 Antenna few meters away.
 X2 interface defined between base
stations
 S1 interface connects base station to the
mobile core network.
 Traditional architecture for 1G and 2G
deployment
 Figure for traditional macro base station
 Base Band with RRH

 The base station separated into Remote

radio head(RRH) and base band signal

processing part (BBU)

 RRH : interface to the fiber and performs

D/A & A/D conversions, power

amplification, digital processing etc.

 BBU called as DU(Data unit): A unit that

processes baseband in telecomm systems.

 It is placed in the equipment room and

connected with RRH via optical fiber

 Basic Structure for 3G

 The distance between BBU and RRH can be extended up to 40
km( limitation is processing and propagation delay)
 Need to keep the BBU equipment in a more convenient, easily
accessible, enabling cost savings on rental and maintenance.
 One BBU can serve many RRHs
 RRHs connected in a daisy chained structure.
 To optimize BBU utilization, BBUs are centralized into one entity
BBU pool.
C-RAN ARCHITECTURE
 A virtual BBU pool connected to various RRHs.
 BBU pool consists of general purpose processors to perform
baseband processing .
 C-RAN mobile LTE network.
 The front haul part spans from the RRHs sites to the BBU pool.
 The backhaul connects to the BBU pool with the mobile core
network .
 RRHs are co-located with antennas, connected to the high
performance processors in the BBU pool.
ADVANTAGES AND CHALLENGES
OF C-RAN

Advantages of C-RAN

Basically divided into 4 categories of advantages:

 Adaptability to Non Uniform Traffic and Scalability
 Energy and cost savings
 Increase of Throughput, decrease of delays
 Ease in network upgrades.
 Adaptability to Non Uniform Traffic and Scalability
 Peak traffic load 10 times higher than the off-the-peak hours.
 The overall utilization rate can be improved in C-RAN.
 Number of BBUs reduced by 75% in Tokyo Metropolitan Area.
 Statistical multiplexing gain varies between 1.2 and 1.6 thereby saving
17%–38% .
 Aggregation of 57 sectors in a single BBU Pool saves more than 25%
of the compute resources.
 Load balancing features enabled on both the BBU side and the cells
side.
 Energy and Cost Savings

 Total of 41% of OP-EX spent on electricity of a cell site.

 Reduced as number of BBUs in a C-RAN is reduced.

 46% spent of OPEX spent on cooling Resources.

 RRHs cooled by natural air in C-RAN.

 All in all 67%-80% power consumption reduced using C-RAN.

Ease in Network Upgrades and Maintenance.

 C-Ran architecture with several Co-Located BBUs eases network maintenance.

 BBU pool automatic reconfiguration absorbs C-RAN capacity peaks and

failures.

 Enables frequent CPU Updates

 Decrease of Delays
 The time needed to perform handovers is reduced as it can be done inside
the BBU pool instead of eNBs.
 Hence reducing the delays.

Increase of Throughput
 Reducing interference achieves greater throughput - important for LTE
and LTE-A.
 Two approaches for addressing for the interference issue.

– Minimizing Inter-Cell Interference:

– Utilizing Interference Paths Constructively:

 Processing by one BBU pool enables tighter interaction between base
stations.
 30-50% throughput gain in case of no interference
 Can reach 150% when the interference is present.