ECONOMETRICS

TWO-VARIABLE REGRESSION MODEL: THE PROBLEM OF

ESTIMATION
 THE METHOD OF ORDINARY LEAST SQUARES

• To understand this method, we first explain the least squares principle.

• Recall the two-variable PRF:
Yi = β1 + β2Xi + ui (2.4.2)
• The PRF is not directly observable. We estimate it from the SRF:
Yi = βˆ1 + βˆ2Xi +uˆi (2.6.2)
= Yˆi +uˆi (2.6.3)
• where Yˆi is the estimated (conditional mean) value of Yi .
• But how is the SRF itself determined? First, express (2.6.3) as
uˆi = Yi − Yˆi
= Yi − βˆ1 − βˆ2Xi (3.1.1)
• Now given n pairs of observations on Y and X, we would like to determine the
SRF in such a manner that it is as close as possible to the actual Y. To this
end, we may adopt the following criterion:
• Choose the SRF in such a way that the sum of the residuals ˆui = (Yi − Yˆi) is
as small as possible.
• But this is not a very good criterion. If we adopt the criterion of
minimizing ˆui , Figure 3.1 shows that the residuals ˆu2 and ˆu3 as well as
the residuals ˆu1 and ˆu4 receive the same weight in the sum (ˆu1 + ˆu2 + ˆu3
+ ˆu4). A consequence of this is that it is quite possible that the algebraic
sum of the ˆui is small (even zero) although the ˆui are widely scattered
about the SRF.
• To see this, let ˆu1, ˆu2, ˆu3, and ˆu4 in Figure 3.1 take the values of 10, −2,
+2, and −10, respectively. The algebraic sum of these residuals is zero
although ˆu1 and ˆu4 are scattered more widely around the SRF than ˆu2
and ˆu3.
• We can avoid this problem if we adopt the least-squares criterion, which
states that the SRF can be fixed in such a way that
ˆu2i = (Yi − Yˆi)2
= (Yi − βˆ1 − βˆ2Xi)2 (3.1.2)
• is as small as possible, where ˆu2i are the squared residuals.
• By squaring ˆui , this method gives more weight to residuals such as
ˆu1 and ˆu4 in Figure 3.1 than the residuals ˆu2 and ˆu3.
• A further justification for the least-squares method lies in the fact
that the estimators obtained by it have some very desirable statistical
properties, as we shall see shortly.
• It is obvious from (3.1.2) that:
ˆu2i = f (βˆ1, βˆ2) (3.1.3)
• that is, the sum of the squared residuals is some function of the estimators
βˆ1 and βˆ2. To see this, consider Table 3.1 and conduct two experiments.
• Since the βˆ values in the two experiments are different, we get
different values for the estimated residuals.
• Now which sets of βˆ values should we choose? Obviously the βˆ’s of
the first experiment are the “best” values. But we can make endless
experiments and then choosing that set of βˆ values that gives us the
least possible value of ˆu2i
• But since time, and patience, are generally in short supply, we need to
consider some shortcuts to this trial-and-error process. Fortunately,
the method of least squares provides us with unique estimates of β1
and β2 that give the smallest possible value of ˆu2i.
ˆu2i = (Yi − βˆ1 − βˆ2Xi)2 (3.1.2)
• The process of differentiation yields the following equations for estimating
β1 and β2:
Yi Xi = βˆ1Xi + βˆ2X2i (3.1.4)
Yi = nβˆ1 + βˆ2Xi (3.1.5)
• where n is the sample size. These simultaneous equations are known as the
normal equations. Solving the normal equations simultaneously, we obtain:
• where X¯ and Y¯ are the sample means of X and Y and where we
define xi = (Xi − X¯ ) and yi = (Yi − Y¯). Henceforth we adopt the
convention of letting the lowercase letters denote deviations from mean
values.
• The last step in (3.1.7) can be obtained directly from (3.1.4) by simple
algebraic manipulations. Incidentally, note that, by making use of simple
algebraic identities, formula (3.1.6) for estimating β2 can be alternatively
expressed as:

• The estimators obtained previously are known as the least-squares estimators.

• Note the following numerical properties of estimators obtained by the
method of OLS:
• I. The OLS estimators are expressed solely in terms of the observable (i.e.,
sample) quantities (i.e., X and Y). Therefore, they can be easily computed.

• II. They are point estimators; that is, given the sample, each estimator will
provide only a single (point, not interval) value of the relevant population
parameter.

• III. Once the OLS estimates are obtained from the sample data, the sample
regression line (Figure 3.1) can be easily obtained.

• The regression line thus obtained has the following properties:

– 1. It passes through the sample means of Y and X. This fact is obvious
from (3.1.7), for the latter can be written as Y¯ = βˆ1 + βˆ2X¯ , which is
shown diagrammatically in Figure 3.2.
 – 2. The mean value of the estimated Y = Yˆi is equal to the mean value of
the actual Y for:
Yˆi = βˆ1 + βˆ2Xi
= (Y¯ − βˆ2X¯ ) + βˆ2Xi
= Y¯ + βˆ2(Xi − X¯) (3.1.9)
• Summing both sides of this last equality over the sample values and
dividing through by the sample size n gives
Y¯ˆ = Y¯ (3.1.10)
• where use is made of the fact that (Xi − X¯ ) = 0.
– 3. The mean value of the residuals ¯ ˆui is zero. From Appendix 3A,
Section 3A.1, the first equation is:
−2(Yi − βˆ1 − βˆ2Xi) = 0
• But since uˆi = Yi − βˆ1 − βˆ2Xi , the preceding equation reduces to
−2 ˆui = 0, whence ¯ˆu = 0
• As a result of the preceding property, the sample regression
Yi = βˆ1 + βˆ2Xi +uˆi (2.6.2)
• can be expressed in an alternative form where both Y and X are expressed as
deviations from their mean values. To see this, sum (2.6.2) on both sides to
give:
Yi = nβˆ1 + βˆ2Xi +uˆi
= nβˆ1 + βˆ2Xi since uˆi = 0 (3.1.11)
• Dividing Eq. (3.1.11) through by n, we obtain
Y¯ = βˆ1 + βˆ2X¯ (3.1.12)
• which is the same as (3.1.7). Subtracting Eq. (3.1.12) from (2.6.2), we obtain
Yi − Y¯ = βˆ2(Xi − X¯ ) + uˆi
• Or
yi = βˆ2xi +uˆi (3.1.13)
• Equation (3.1.13) is known as the deviation form. Notice that the
intercept term βˆ1 is no longer present in it. But the intercept term can
always be estimated by (3.1.7), that is, from the fact that the sample
regression line passes through the sample means of Y and X.
• An advantage of the deviation form is that it often simplifies
computing formulas. In passing, note that in the deviation form, the
SRF can be written as:
yˆi = βˆ2xi (3.1.14)
• whereas in the original units of measurement it was Yˆi = βˆ1 + βˆ2Xi ,
as shown in (2.6.1).
– 4. The residuals ˆui are uncorrelated with the predicted Yi . This statement
can be verified as follows: using the deviation form, we can write:

– where use is made of the fact that

– 5. The residuals ˆui are uncorrelated with Xi ; that is, This

fact follows from Eq. (2) in Appendix 3A, Section 3A.1.
THE CLASSICAL LINEAR REGRESSION MODEL: THE ASSUMPTIONS
UNDERLYING THE METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES

• In regression analysis our objective is not only to obtain βˆ1 and βˆ2
but also to draw inferences about the true β1 and β2. For example, we
would like to know how close βˆ1 and βˆ2 are to their counterparts in the
population or how close Yˆi is to the true E(Y | Xi).

• Look at the PRF: Yi = β1 + β2Xi + ui . It shows that Yi depends on both

Xi and ui . The assumptions made about the Xi variable(s) and the
error term are extremely critical to the valid interpretation of the
regression estimates.

• The Gaussian, standard, or classical linear regression model

(CLRM), makes 10 assumptions.
• Keep in mind that the regressand Y and the regressor X themselves may be
nonlinear.
• look at Table 2.1. Keeping the value of income X fixed, say, at $80, we
draw at random a family and observe its weekly family consumption
expenditure Y as, say, $60. Still keeping X at $80, we draw at random
another family and observe its Y value as $75. In each of these
drawings (i.e., repeated sampling), the value of X is fixed at $80. We
can repeat this process for all the X values shown in Table 2.1.
• This means that our regression analysis is conditional regression
analysis, that is, conditional on the given values of the regressor(s) X.
• As shown in Figure 3.3, each Y population corresponding to a given X
is distributed around its mean value with some Y values above the
mean and some below it. the mean value of these deviations
corresponding to any given X should be zero.
• Note that the assumption E(ui | Xi) = 0 implies that E(Yi | Xi) = β1 +
β2Xi.
E(ui | Xi) = 0
• Technically, (3.2.2) represents the assumption of homoscedasticity, or equal
(homo) spread (scedasticity) or equal variance. Stated differently, (3.2.2) means
that the Y populations corresponding to various X values have the same
variance.
• Put simply, the variation around the regression line (which is the line of
average relationship between Y and X) is the same across the X values; it
neither increases or decreases as X varies
• In Figure 3.5, where the conditional variance of the Y population
varies with X. This situation is known as heteroscedasticity, or unequal
spread, or variance. Symbolically, in this situation (3.2.2) can be
written as
• var (ui | Xi) = σ2i (3.2.3)
• Figure 3.5. shows that, var (u| X1) < var (u| X2), . . . , < var (u| Xi).
Therefore, the likelihood is that the Y observations coming from the
population with X = X1 would be closer to the PRF than those coming
from populations corresponding to X = X2, X = X3, and so on. In short,
not all Y values corresponding to the various X’s will be equally
reliable, reliability being judged by how closely or distantly the Y
values are distributed around their means, that is, the points on the
PRF.
• The disturbances ui and uj are uncorrelated, i.e., no serial correlation. This
means that, given Xi , the deviations of any two Y values from their mean
value do not exhibit patterns. In Figure 3.6a, the u’s are positively correlated,
a positive u followed by a positive u or a negative u followed by a negative u.
In Figure 3.6b, the u’s are negatively correlated, a positive u followed by a
negative u and vice versa. If the disturbances follow systematic patterns,
Figure 3.6a and b, there is auto- or serial correlation. Figure 3.6c shows that
there is no systematic pattern to the u’s, thus indicating zero correlation.
• Suppose in our PRF (Yt = β1 + β2Xt + ut) that ut and ut−1 are positively
correlated. Then Yt depends not only on Xt but also on ut−1 for ut−1 to
some extent determines ut.
• The disturbance u and explanatory variable X are uncorrelated. The PRF
assumes that X and u (which may represent the influence of all the omitted
variables) have separate (and additive) influence on Y. But if X and u are
correlated, it is not possible to assess their individual effects on Y. Thus, if X and
u are positively correlated, X increases when u increases and it decreases when u
decreases. Similarly, if X and u are negatively correlated, X increases when u
decreases and it decreases when u increases. In either case, it is difficult to
isolate the influence of X and u on Y.
• In the hypothetical example of Table 3.1, imagine that we had only the first
pair of observations on Y and X (4 and 1). From this single observation there
is no way to estimate the two unknowns, β1 and β2. We need at least two pairs
of observations to estimate the two unknowns
• This assumption too is not so innocuous as it looks. Look at Eq. (3.1.6). If
all the X values are identical, then Xi = X¯ and the denominator of that
equation will be zero, making it impossible to estimate β2 and therefore β1.
Looking at our family consumption expenditure example in Chapter 2, if
there is very little variation in family income, we will not be able to explain
much of the variation in the consumption expenditure.
• An econometric investigation begins with the specification of the
econometric model underlying the phenomenon of interest. Some important
questions that arise in the specification of the model include the following:
(1) What variables should be included in the model?
• (2) What is the functional form of the model? Is it linear in the parameters,
the variables, or both?
• (3) What are the probabilistic assumptions made about the Yi , the Xi, and
the ui entering the model?
• Suppose we choose the following two models to depict the underlying
relationship between the rate of change of money wages and the
unemployment rate:
• Yi = α1 + α2Xi + ui (3.2.7)
• Yi = β1 + β2 (1/Xi ) + ui (3.2.8)
• where Yi = the rate of change of money wages, and Xi = the unemployment rate.
The regression model (3.2.7) is linear both in the parameters and the
variables, whereas (3.2.8) is linear in the parameters (hence a linear
regression model by our definition) but nonlinear in the variable X. Now
consider Figure 3.7.
• If model (3.2.8) is the “correct” or the “true” model, fitting the model (3.2.7)
to the scatterpoints shown in Figure 3.7 will give us wrong predictions.
• Unfortunately, in practice one rarely knows the correct variables to include in
the model or the correct functional form of the model or the correct
probabilistic assumptions about the variables entering the model for the
theory underlying the particular investigation may not be strong or robust
enough to answer all these questions.
• We will discuss this assumption in Chapter 7, where we discuss multiple
regression models.
 PRECISION OR STANDARD ERRORS OF LEAST-
SQUARES ESTIMATES

• The least-squares estimates are a function of the sample data. But since the
data change from sample to sample, the estimates will change. Therefore,
what is needed is some measure of “reliability” or precision of the
estimators βˆ1 and βˆ2. In statistics the precision of an estimate is measured by
its standard error (se), which can be obtained as follows:
• σ2 is the constant or homoscedastic variance of ui of Assumption 4.
• σ2 itself is estimated by the following formula:

• where ˆσ2 is the OLS estimator of the true but unknown σ2 and where the
expression n−2 is known as the number of degrees of freedom (df), is
the residual sum of squares (RSS). Once is known, ˆσ2 can be easily
computed.

• Compared with Eq. (3.1.2), Eq. (3.3.6) is easy to use, for it does not require
computing ˆui for each observation.
• Since

• an alternative expression for computing is

• In passing, note that the positive square root of ˆσ2

• is known as the standard error of estimate or the standard error of the

regression (se). It is simply the standard deviation of the Y values about the
estimated regression line and is often used as a summary measure of the
“goodness of fit” of the estimated regression line.
• Note the following features of the variances (and therefore the standard
errors) of βˆ1 and βˆ2.

• 1. The variance of βˆ2 is directly proportional to σ2 but inversely proportional

to x2i . That is, given σ2, the larger the variation in the X values, the smaller
the variance of βˆ2 and hence the greater the precision with which β2 can be
estimated.

• 2. The variance of βˆ1 is directly proportional to σ2 and X2i but inversely

proportional to x2i and the sample size n.
• 3. Since βˆ1 and βˆ2 are estimators, they will not only vary from sample to
sample but in a given sample they are likely to be dependent on each other,
this dependence being measured by the covariance between them.

• Since var (βˆ2) is always positive, as is the variance of any variable, the nature
of the covariance between βˆ1 and βˆ2 depends on the sign of X¯ . If X¯ is
positive, then as the formula shows, the covariance will be negative. Thus, if
the slope coefficient β2 is overestimated (i.e., the slope is too steep), the
intercept coefficient β1 will be underestimated (i.e., the intercept will be too
small).
 PROPERTIES OF LEAST-SQUARES ESTIMATORS:
THE GAUSS–MARKOV THEOREM

• To understand this theorem, we need to consider the best linear

unbiasedness property of an estimator. An estimator, say the OLS estimator
βˆ2, is said to be a best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE) of β2 if the
following hold:
• 1. It is linear, that is, a linear function of a random variable, such as the
dependent variable Y in the regression model.
• 2. It is unbiased, that is, its average or expected value, E(βˆ2), is equal to the
true value, β2.
• 3. It has minimum variance in the class of all such linear unbiased
estimators; an unbiased estimator with the least variance is known as an
efficient estimator.
• What all this means can be explained with the aid of Figure 3.8. In Figure
3.8(a) we have shown the sampling distribution of the OLS estimator βˆ2, that
is, the distribution of the values taken by βˆ2 in repeated sampling experiment.
For convenience we have assumed βˆ2 to be distributed symmetrically. As the
figure shows, the mean of the βˆ2 values, E(βˆ2), is equal to the true β2. In this
situation we say that βˆ2 is an unbiased estimator of β2. In Figure 3.8(b) we
have shown the sampling distribution of β∗2, an alternative estimator of β2
obtained by using another (i.e., other than OLS) method.
• For convenience, assume that β*2, like βˆ2, is unbiased, that is, its average or
expected value is equal to β2. Assume further that both βˆ2 and β*2 are linear
estimators, that is, they are linear functions of Y. Which estimator, βˆ2 or β*2,
would you choose? To answer this question, superimpose the two figures, as
in Figure 3.8(c). It is obvious that although both βˆ2 and β*2 are unbiased
the distribution of β*2 is more diffused or widespread around the mean
value than the distribution of βˆ2. In other words, the variance of β*2 is
larger than the variance of βˆ2.
• Now given two estimators that are both linear and unbiased, one would
choose the estimator with the smaller variance because it is more likely to
be close to β2 than the alternative estimator. In short, one would choose the
BLUE estimator.
 THE COEFFICIENT OF DETERMINATION r2:
A MEASURE OF “GOODNESS OF FIT”

• We now consider the goodness of fit of the fitted regression line to a set of
data; that is, we shall find out how “well” the sample regression line fits the
data. The coefficient of determination r2 (two-variable case) or R2 (multiple
regression) is a summary measure that tells how well the sample regression
line fits the data.
• Consider a heuristic explanation of r2 in terms of a graphical device, known
as the Venn diagram shown in Figure 3.9.
• In this figure the circle Y represents variation in the dependent variable Y and
the circle X represents variation in the explanatory variable X. The overlap of
the two circles indicates the extent to which the variation in Y is explained
by the variation in X.
• To compute this r2, we proceed as follows: Recall that
• Yi = Yˆi +uˆi (2.6.3)
• or in the deviation form
• yi = ˆyi + ˆui (3.5.1)
• where use is made of (3.1.13) and (3.1.14). Squaring (3.5.1) on both sides
and summing over the sample, we obtain
•

• Since = 0 and yˆi = βˆ2xi .

• The various sums of squares appearing in (3.5.2) can be described as
follows: = total variation of the actual Y values about their
sample mean, which may be called the total sum of squares (TSS).
• = variation of the estimated Y
values about their mean (¯ˆY = Y¯), which appropriately may be called the
sum of squares due to/or explained by regression, or simply the explained
sum of squares (ESS). = residual or unexplained variation of the Y
values about the regression line, or simply the residual sum of squares (RSS).
Thus, (3.5.2) is
• TSS = ESS + RSS (3.5.3)
• and shows that the total variation in the observed Y values about their mean
value can be partitioned into two parts, one attributable to the regression
line and the other to random forces because not all actual Y observations lie
on the fitted line. Geometrically, we have Figure 3.10
• The quantity r2 thus defined is known as the (sample) coefficient of
determination and is the most commonly used measure of the goodness of fit
of a regression line. Verbally, r2 measures the proportion or percentage of the
total variation in Y explained by the regression model.
• Two properties of r2 may be noted:
• 1. It is a nonnegative quantity.
• 2. Its limits are 0 ≤ r2 ≤ 1. An r2 of 1 means a perfect fit, that is, Yˆi = Yi for
each i. On the other hand, an r2 of zero means that there is no relationship
between the regressand and the regressor whatsoever (i.e., βˆ2 = 0). In this
case, as (3.1.9) shows, Yˆi = βˆ1 = Y¯, that is, the best prediction of any Y value
is simply its mean value. In this situation therefore the regression line will
be horizontal to the X axis.
• Although r2 can be computed directly from its definition given in (3.5.5), it
can be obtained more quickly from the following formula:
• Some of the properties of r are as follows (see Figure 3.11):
• 1. It can be positive or negative,
• 2. It lies between the limits of −1 and +1; that is, −1 ≤ r ≤ 1.
• 3. It is symmetrical in nature; that is, the coefficient of correlation between X
and Y(rXY) is the same as that between Y and X(rYX).
• 4. It is independent of the origin and scale; that is, if we define X*i = aXi + C
and Y*i = bYi + d, where a > 0, b > 0, and c and d are constants, then r
between X* and Y* is the same as that between the original variables X and Y.
• 5. If X and Y are statistically independent, the correlation coefficient between
them is zero; but if r = 0, it does not mean that two variables are
independent.
• 6. It is a measure of linear association or linear dependence only; it has no
meaning for describing nonlinear relations.
• 7. Although it is a measure of linear association between two variables, it
does not necessarily imply any cause-and-effect relationship.
• In the regression context, r2 is a more meaningful measure than r, for the
former tells us the proportion of variation in the dependent variable
explained by the explanatory variable(s) and therefore provides an overall
measure of the extent to which the variation in one variable determines the
variation in the other. The latter does not have such value. Moreover, as we
shall see, the interpretation of r (= R) in a multiple regression model is of
dubious value. In passing, note that the r2 defined previously can also be
computed as the squared coefficient of correlation between actual Yi and the
estimated Yi , namely, Yˆi . That is, using (3.5.13), we can write
• where Yi = actual Y, Yˆi = estimated Y, and Y¯ = Y¯ˆ = the mean of Y. For
proof, see exercise 3.15. Expression (3.5.14) justifies the description of r2 as
a measure of goodness of fit, for it tells how close the estimated Y values are
to their actual values.
A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
• βˆ1 = 24.4545 var (βˆ1) = 41.1370 and se (βˆ1) = 6.4138
• βˆ2 = 0.5091 var (βˆ2) = 0.0013 and se (βˆ2) = 0.0357
• cov (βˆ1, βˆ2) = −0.2172 σˆ2 = 42.1591 (3.6.1)
• r2 = 0.9621 r = 0.9809 df = 8
• The estimated regression line therefore is
• Yˆi = 24.4545 + 0.5091Xi (3.6.2)
• which is shown geometrically as Figure 3.12.
• Following Chapter 2, the SRF [Eq. (3.6.2)] and the associated regression line
are interpreted as follows: Each point on the regression line gives an estimate
of the expected or mean value of Y corresponding to the chosen X value; that
is, Yˆi is an estimate of E(Y | Xi). The value of βˆ2 = 0.5091, which measures the
slope of the line, shows that, within the sample range of X between $80 and
$260 per week, as X increases, say, by $1, the estimated increase in the mean
or average weekly consumption expenditure amounts to about 51 cents. The
value of βˆ1 = 24.4545, which is the intercept of the line, indicates the average
level of weekly consumption expenditure when weekly income is zero.
• However, this is a mechanical interpretation of the intercept term. In
regression analysis such literal interpretation of the intercept term may not
be always meaningful, although in the present example it can be argued
that a family without any income (because of unemployment, layoff, etc.)
might maintain some minimum level of consumption expenditure either by
borrowing or dissaving. But in general one has to use common sense in
interpreting the intercept term, for very often the sample range of X values
may not include zero as one of the observed values. Perhaps it is best to
interpret the intercept term as the mean or average effect on Y of all the
variables omitted from the regression model. The value of r 2 of 0.9621 means
that about 96 percent of the variation in the weekly consumption expenditure
is explained by income. Since r 2 can at most be 1, the observed r 2 suggests
that the sample regression line fits the data very well.26 The coefficient of
correlation of 0.9809 shows that the two variables, consumption
expenditure and income, are highly positively correlated. The estimated
standard errors of the regression coefficients will be interpreted in Chapter
5.
 END

NEXT

CLASSICAL NORMAL LINEAR REGRESSION

MODEL (CNLRM)
• See numerical exapmles 3.1-3.3