1 Introduction EMC

I.
Introduction to EMC
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Introduction to EMC
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is broadly defined as a state
that exists when all devices in a system are able to function
without error in their intended electromagnetic environment.
In 1996, TWA Flight 800 bound from New York to Paris exploded
over the ocean shortly after take-off. After a lengthy investigation
that involved salvaging and reconstructing major portions of the
aircraft, it was concluded that the most probable cause of the
explosion was a spark in the center wing fuel tank that ignited
the air/fuel mixture. This spark was likely the direct result of a
large voltage transient, possibly a power line transient or
electrostatic discharge.
Introduction to EMC
• In 2007, the results of
a study conducted by researchers at the University of Amsterdam
documented nearly 50 incidents of electromagnetic interference
from cell phone use in hospitals, and classified 75 percent of them
as significant or hazardous. Another study, published in 2008 by
researchers from Amsterdam, showed that electromagnetic
interference from RFID devices also had the potential to cause
critical care medical equipment to malfunction.
• Spontaneous valve closures at the Niagara Mohawk Nine Mile Point
#2 nuclear power plant were due to interference generated by
workers' wireless handsets. Despite the tremendous emphasis on
safety and security that is placed on the design and construction of
all nuclear power plants, the relatively weak emissions from
common wireless handsets resulted in a major malfunction.
Introduction to EMC
Unfortunately, these are not rare isolated occurrences.
Electromagnetic compatibility problems result in many deaths and
billions of dollars in lost revenue every year. The past decade has seen
an explosive increase in the number and severity of EMC problems
primarily due to the proliferation of microprocessor controlled devices,
high‑frequency circuits and low‑power transmitters.
2. Elements of an EMC Problem
There are three essential elements to an EMC problem as
illustrated in Figure 1. There must be a source of
electromagnetic energy, a receptor (or victim) that cannot
function properly due to the electromagnetic energy, and
a path between them that couples the energy from the
source to the receptor. Each of these three elements must
be present, although they may not be readily identified in
every situation. Electromagnetic compatibility problems
are generally solved by identifying at least two of these
elements and eliminating (or attenuating) one of them.
Figure 1. The
three essential
elements of an
EMC problem
For example, in the case of the nuclear power plant, the receptor was readily
identified. The turbine control valves were malfunctioning. The source and the
coupling path were originally unknown; however an investigation revealed that
wireless handsets used by the plant employees were the source. Although at this point
the coupling path was not known, the problem was solved by eliminating the source
(e.g. restricting the use of low‑power radio transmitters in certain areas). A more
thorough and perhaps more secure approach would be to identify the coupling path
and take steps to eliminate it.
For example, suppose it was determined that radiated
emissions from a wireless handset were inducing currents
on a cable that was connected to a printed circuit card
that contained a circuit that controlled the turbine valves.
If the operation of the circuit was found to be adversely
affected by these induced currents, a possible coupling
path would be identified. Shielding, filtering, or rerouting
the cable, and filtering or redesigning the circuit would
then be possible methods of attenuating the coupling
path to the point where the problem is non‑existent.
When a Roosevelt Island Tramway car suddenly sped up at the
end of the line and crashed into a concrete barrier, the problem
was thought to be transients on the tramway's power. The
coupling path was presumably through the power supply to the
speed control circuit, although investigators were unable to
reproduce the failure so the source and coupling path were never
identified conclusively. The receptor, on the other hand, was
clearly shown to be the speed control circuit and this circuit was
modified to keep it from becoming confused by unintentional
random inputs. In other words, the solution was to eliminate the
receptor by making the speed control circuit immune to the
electromagnetic phenomenon produced by the source.
Potential sources of electromagnetic compatibility problems include radio transmitters,
power lines, electronic circuits, lightning, lamp dimmers, electric motors, arc welders, solar
flares and just about anything that utilizes or creates electromagnetic energy. Potential
receptors include radio receivers, electronic circuits, appliances, people, and just about
anything that utilizes or can detect electromagnetic energy.
Methods of coupling electromagnetic energy from a source to a receptor fall into one of
four categories.
1. Conducted (electric current)
2. Inductively coupled (magnetic field)
3. Capacitively coupled (electric field)
4. Radiated (electromagnetic field)
Coupling paths often utilize a complex combination of these methods making the path
difficult to identify even when the source and receptor are known. There may be multiple
coupling paths, and steps taken to attenuate one path may enhance another.
3. A Brief History of EMC
In the late 1880's, the German physicist Heinrich Hertz performed
experiments that demonstrated the phenomenon of radio wave
propagation, thus confirming the theory published by James Clerk
Maxwell two decades earlier. Hertz developed a spark in a small
gap between two metal rods that were connected at the other
end to metal plates, as shown in Figure 2. The spark excitation
created an oscillating current on the rods resulting in
electromagnetic radiation near the resonant frequency of the
antenna. The receiving antenna was a loop of wire with a very
thin gap. A spark in the gap indicated the presence of a
time‑varying field and the maximum spark gap length provided a
measurement of the received field's strength.
Figure 2. Early
antennas constructed
by Heinrich Hertz.
Guglielmo Marconi learned of Hertz's experiments and improved upon

them. In 1895, he developed the wireless telegraph, the first
communications device to convey information using radio waves.
Although the significance of his invention was not initially appreciated,
the U.S. Navy took an interest due to the potential of this device to
enhance communication with ships at sea.
• In 1899, the Navy initiated the first shipboard tests of the wireless
telegraph. While the tests were successful in many ways, the Navy was
unable to operate two transmitters simultaneously. The reason for this
problem was that the operating frequency and bandwidth of the early
wireless telegraph was primarily determined by the size, shape and
construction of the antenna. Receiving antennas were always "tuned"
(experimentally) to the same operating frequency as the transmitting
antenna, however the bandwidth was difficult to control. Therefore when
two transmitters were operating simultaneously, receivers detected the
fields from both of them to some extent and the received signal was
generally unintelligible. This early electromagnetic compatibility problem
came to be referred to as Radio Frequency Interference (RFI). As the
popularity of the wireless telegraph grew, so did the concern about RFI.
In 1904, Theodore Roosevelt signed an executive order empowering
the Department of Commerce to regulate all private radio stations and
the Navy to regulate all government stations (and all radio stations in
times of war). Different types of radio transmitters were assigned
different frequency allocations and often were only allowed to operate
at certain times in order to reduce the potential for RFI.
By 1906, various spark‑quenching schemes and tuning circuits were
being employed to reduce the bandwidth of wireless transmitters and
receivers significantly. However, it was the invention of the vacuum
tube oscillator in 1912 and the super heterodyne receiver in 1918 that
made truly narrow band transmission and reception possible. These
developments also made it possible to transmit reasonably clear
human speech, which paved the way for commercial radio broadcasts.
The period from about 1925 to 1950 is known as the golden age of
broadcasting. During this period the popularity of radio soared. As
the number of radios proliferated, so did the electromagnetic
compatibility problems. RFI was a common problem because the
regulations governing intentional or unintentional interference with
a commercial radio broadcast were lax and more people had access
to radio equipment. In order to alleviate this problem, the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) was established in 1934 as an
independent agency of the U.S. Government. It was empowered to
regulate U.S. interstate and foreign communication by radio, wire,
and cable. FCC regulations and licensing requirements significantly
reduced the number of radio frequency interference problems.
However, due to the increasing number of radio receivers being located
in homes, the general public was introduced to a variety of new EMC
problems. Unintentional electromagnetic radiation sources such as
thunderstorms, gasoline engines, and electric appliances often created
bigger interference problems than intentional radio transmitters.
Intrasystem interference was also a growing concern. Super heterodyne
receivers contain their own local oscillator, which had to be isolated
from other parts of the radio's own circuit. Radios and phonographs
were lumped together in home entertainment systems. Radios were
installed in automobiles, elevators, tractors, and airplanes. The
developers and manufacturers of these systems found it necessary to
develop better grounding, shielding, and filtering techniques in order to
make their products function.
In the 1940's many new types of radio transmitters and receivers were
developed for use during World War II. Radio signals were not only
used for communication, but also to locate ships and planes (RADAR)
and to jam enemy radio communications. Because of the immediate
need, this equipment was hurriedly installed on ships and planes
resulting in severe EMC problems.
Experiences with electromagnetic compatibility problems during the
war prompted the development of the first joint Army‑Navy RFI
standard, JAN‑I‑225, "Radio Interference Measurement," published in
1945. Much more attention was devoted to RFI problems in general,
and techniques for grounding, shielding and filtering in particular.
Electromagnetic compatibility became an engineering specialization in
a manner similar to antenna design or communications theory.
In 1954, the first Armour Research Foundation Conference on Radio Frequency
Interference was held. This annual conference was sponsored by both government
and industry. Three years later, the Professional Group on Radio Frequency
Interference was established as the newest of several professional groups of the
Institute of Radio Engineers. Today, this group is known as the Electromagnetic
Compatibility Society of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
During the 1960's, electronic devices and systems became an increasingly important
part of our society and were crucial to our national defense. A typical aircraft carrier,
for example, employed 35 radio transmitters, 56 radio receivers, 5 radars, 7
navigational aid systems, and well over 100 antennas [1]. During the Vietnam War,
Navy ships were often forced to shut down critical systems in order to allow other
systems to function. This alarming situation focused even more attention on the issue
of electromagnetic compatibility. Outside the military, an increasing dependence on
computers, satellites, telephones, radio and television made potential susceptibility
to electromagnetic phenomena a very serious concern.
• The 1970's witnessed the development of the microprocessor and
the proliferation of small, low‑cost, low‑power semiconductor
devices. Circuits utilizing these devices were much more sensitive to
weak electromagnetic fields than the older vacuum tube circuits. As
a result, more attention was directed toward solving an increasing
number of electromagnetic susceptibility problems that occurred
with these circuits.
• In addition to traditional radiated electromagnetic susceptibility
(RES) problems due to intentional and unintentional radio
frequency transmitters, three classes of electromagnetic
susceptibility problems gained prominence in the '70s. Perhaps the
most familiar of these is electrostatic discharge (ESD). An
electrostatic discharge occurs whenever two objects with a
significantly different electric potential come together. The "shock"
that is felt when a person reaches for a door knob after walking

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I.

Guglielmo Marconi learned of Hertz's experiments and improved upon

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