Chapter 2: Algorithm

Discovery and Design

Invitation to Computer Science,
C++ Version, Third Edition
Objectives

In this chapter, you will learn about:

 Representing algorithms

 Examples of algorithmic problem solving

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Introduction

 This chapter discusses algorithms and

algorithmic problem solving using three
problems:

 Searching lists

 Finding maxima and minima

 Matching patterns

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Methods for Representing
Algorithms
 Natural language
 Language spoken and written in everyday life
 Examples: English, Spanish, Arabic, etc.
 Problems with using natural language for
algorithms
 Verbose
 Imprecise
 Relies on context and experiences
to give precise meaning to a word or phrase

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 Figure 2.1
The Addition Algorithm of Figure 1.2 Expressed in Natural Language

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Methods for Representing
Algorithms
 High-level programming language

 Examples: C++, Java

 Problem with using a high-level programming

language for algorithms

 During the initial phases of design, we are forced to

deal with detailed language issues

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 Figure 2.2
The Beginning of the Addition Algorithm of Figure 1.2 Expressed
in a High-Level Programming Language

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Methods for Representing Algorithms
Pseudocode
 English language constructs modeled to look like
statements available in most programming
languages

 Steps presented in a structured manner

(numbered, indented, etc.)

 No fixed syntax for most operations is required

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Pseudocode (continued)

 Less ambiguous and more readable than natural

language

 Emphasis is on process, not notation

 Well-understood forms allow logical reasoning

about algorithm behavior

 Can be easily translated into a programming

language

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Algorithmic Operations

 Types of algorithmic operations

 Sequential

 Conditional

 Iterative

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Sequential Operations

 Computation operations

 Example

 Set the value of “variable” to “arithmetic expression”

 Variable

 Named storage location that can hold a data value

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Sequential Operations (continued)
 Input operations
 To receive data values from the outside world
 Example
 Get a value for r, the radius of the circle
 Output operations
 To send results to the outside world for display
 Example
 Print the value of Area

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 An Algorithm Using Only Sequential Operations

Figure 2.3: Algorithm for Computing Average Miles per Gallon

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Conditional and Iterative Operations

 Sequential algorithm ( example previous slide)

 Also called straight-line algorithm
 Executes its instructions in a straight line from top
to bottom and then stops

 Control operations
 Conditional operations
 Iterative operations

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Conditional Operations
 Conditional operations
 Ask questions and choose alternative actions
based on the answers
 Example ( syntax vs semantics – show flow chart)
 if x is greater than 25 then
print x
else
print x times 100

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Figure 2.4: Second Version of the Average Miles per Gallon Algorithm
(What types of operations ?)

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Iterative Operations

 Iterative operations

 Perform “looping” behavior; repeating actions until

a continuation condition becomes false

 Loop

 The repetition of a block of instructions

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Iterative Operations (continued)

 Examples (syntax)
 while j > 0 do
set s to s + aj
set j to j - 1

 repeat do
print ak print ak
set k to k + 1 set k to k+1
until k > n while k ≤ n

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Iterative Operations (continued)

 Components of a loop
 Continuation condition

 Loop body

 Infinite loop
 The continuation condition never becomes false

 An error
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 Figure 2.5: Third Version of the Average Miles per Gallon Algorithm
(What type of operations are used ?)

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Iterative Operations (continued)

 Pretest loop ( semantics - show flow chart )

 Continuation condition tested at the beginning of

each pass through the loop

 It is possible for the loop body to never be

executed

 While loop

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Conditional and Iterative Operations
(continued)
 Posttest loop ( semantics - show flow chart )

 Continuation condition tested at the end of loop

body

 Loop body must be executed at least once

 Do/While loop ( or Repeat/Until loop )

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 Figure 2.6
Summary of Pseudocode Language Instructions

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 Algorithm Development (1)

 Algorithms have three basic phases

 Input

 Processing

 Output

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 Algorithm Development (2)

 Input - refers to the stage in which data

and/or other processing information is given
to the algorithm.
 If calculating Area from Length and Width
- values for L and W are provided
 If summing the numbers from 1 to N
- value for N is provided
 If searching a list of names for a specific name
- the list and the name to search for are given

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 Algorithm Development (3)
 Processing – refers to the stage in which the data
and/or other information is manipulated to obtain the
desired result.
 This is sometimes divided into two parts

 Process Initialization (not always needed – give examples)

 Set values of process parameters and/or,
 Manipulate original data in some way

 Process Execution
 Algorithmic operations followed until the desired result is
obtained.

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 Algorithm Development (4)
 Output - The desired result is made available to the
user or other computing agent

 If calculating Area from Length and Width

- the value of Area is displayed

 If summing numbers from 1 to N

- the value of N is displayed

 If searching a list of names for a specific name

- display info associated with name, or
- report that name not found

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 Algorithm Development (5)
 Algorithms are developed in order to solve a
problem or accomplish a task.

 The task or problem is usually expressed in:

 words, as in a word problem, or a
 specification document

 How do I convert the problem description into

an algorithm that can be programmed?

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 Algorithm Development (6)
 Problem description → Algorithm
 Read description until you grasp the problem.
 Determine what data and other input information
is required
 Determine the desired output or outcome
 Formulate a ‘high level’ description or plan for
processing the input to get the desired result
 Write a first draft of the algorithm
 Refine the algorithm until it is in ‘pseudocode’

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Example 1: Looking, Looking,
Looking
 Examples of algorithmic problem solving

 Sequential search: find a particular value in an

unordered collection

 Find maximum: find the largest value in a

collection of data

 Pattern matching: determine if and where a

particular pattern occurs in a piece of text

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Example 1: Looking, Looking,
Looking (continued)
 Task

 Find a particular person’s name from an

unordered list of telephone subscribers

 Algorithm outline

 Start with the first entry and check its name, then
repeat the process for all entries

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Example 1: Looking, Looking,
Looking (continued)
 Algorithm discovery
 Finding a solution to a given problem
 Naïve sequential search algorithm ( example next slide )
 For each entry, write a separate section of the
algorithm that checks for a match
 Problems
 Only works for collections of exactly one size
 Duplicates the same operations over and over

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 Sequential Search – Attempt 1 (100 items)
 Get values for list of Names, Numbers
 Get target name
 If Name1 equals target Then
 Print Message “Found ”, Name1, “Phone Number”, Numbers1
 Endif
 If Name2 equals target Then
 Print Message “Found ”, Name2, “Phone Number”, Numbers2
 Endif
 If Name3 equals target Then
 Print Message “Found ”, Name3, “Phone Number”, Numbers3
 Endif
 ….
 If Name100 equals target Then
 Print Message “Found ”, Name100, “Phone Number”, Numbers100
 Endif

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Example 1: Looking, Looking,
Looking (continued)
 Correct sequential search algorithm
 Uses iteration to simplify the task
 Refers to a value in the list using an index (or
pointer)
 Handles special cases (like a name not found in
the collection)
 Uses the variable Found to exit the iteration as
soon as a match is found
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 Figure 2.9: The Sequential Search Algorithm
(flowchart next slide)

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Example 2: Big, Bigger, Biggest
 Task
 Find the largest value from a list of values

 Algorithm outline
 Keep track of the largest value seen so far and its
location

 Compare each value to the largest seen so far,

and keep the larger as the new largest

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Example 2: Big, Bigger, Biggest
(continued)

 Find Largest algorithm

 Uses iteration and indices like previous example

 Updates location and largest so far when needed

in the loop

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 Figure 2.10
Algorithm to Find the Largest Value in a List

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 Find Largest Algorithm – Pseudo Code Simulator Version

Steps for FindLargest With Array A

Input
Set Value of Size to A.length
Set Value of LargestSoFar to A[0] Initialization
Set Value of Location to 0
Set Value of Counter to 1

While Value of Counter < Size Do Processing

If Value of A[Counter] > LargestSoFar Then
Set Value of LargestSoFar to A[Counter]
Set Value of Location to Counter
Endif
Set Value of Counter to Counter + 1
Endwhile
Output Value of LargestSoFar Output
Output Value of Location
Stop

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Example 3: Meeting Your Match
 Task

 Find if and where a pattern string occurs within a

longer piece of text

 Algorithm outline

 Try each possible location of pattern string in turn

 At each location, compare pattern characters

against string characters

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Example 3: Meeting Your Match
(continued)
 Concept of Abstraction

 Separating high-level view from low-level details

 Key concept in computer science

 Makes difficult problems intellectually manageable

 Allows piece-by-piece development of algorithms

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Example 3: Meeting Your Match
(continued)
 Top-down design
 When solving a complex problem:
 Create high-level operations in first draft of an
algorithm

 After drafting the outline of the algorithm, return to

the high-level operations and elaborate each one

 Repeat until all operations are primitives

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Example 3: Meeting Your Match
(continued)

 Pattern-matching algorithm (graphical example on board)

 Contains a loop within a loop

 External loop iterates through possible locations of

matches to pattern

 Internal loop iterates through corresponding

characters of pattern and string to evaluate match

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Pattern Matching

 Pattern Matching Demonstration

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 Figure 2.12
Final Draft of the Pattern-Matching Algorithm

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Problem solving with algorithms

 The selection of an algorithm to solve a problem

is greatly influenced by the way the data for that
problem are organized
 Searching is more efficient if list is sorted first

 Once an algorithm has been developed, it may

itself be used in the construction of other, more
complex algorithms
 Sorting may use find largest or find smallest

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Problem solving with algorithms
Library

 A collection of useful algorithms

 An important tool in algorithm design and

development

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Summary
 Algorithm design is a first step in developing an
algorithm

 Must also:
 Ensure the algorithm is correct

 Ensure the algorithm is sufficiently efficient

 Pseudocode is used to design and represent

algorithms

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Summary

 Pseudocode is readable, unambiguous, and

analyzable

 Algorithm design is a creative process; uses

multiple drafts and top-down design to develop
the best solution

 Abstraction is a key tool for good design

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