1.

1 Compilers:
• A compiler is a program that reads a program
written in one language –– the source
language –– and translates it into an
equivalent program in another language ––
the target language

1
 1.1 Compilers:
• As an important part of this translation
process, the compiler reports to its user the
presence of errors in the source program.

2
1.1 Compilers:

3
 1.1 Compilers:
• At first glance, the variety of compilers may
appear overwhelming.

• There are thousands of source languages,

ranging from traditional programming
languages such as FORTRAN and Pascal to
specialized languages.

4
 1.1 Compilers:
• Target languages are equally as varied;

• A target language may be another

programming language, or the machine
language of any computer.

5
 1.1 Compilers:
• Compilers are sometimes classified as:
– single-pass
– multi-pass
– load-and-go
– Debugging
– optimizing

6
 1.1 Compilers:
• The basic tasks that any compiler must
perform are essentially the same.

• By understanding these tasks, we can

construct compilers for a wide variety of
source languages and target machines using
the same basic techniques.

7
 1.1 Compilers:
• Throughout the 1950’s, compilers were
considered notoriously difficult programs to
write.

• The first FORTRAN compiler, for example, took

18 staff-years to implement.

8
9
 The Analysis-Synthesis Model of
Compilation:

• There are two parts of compilation:

– Analysis
– Synthesis

10
 The Analysis-Synthesis Model of
Compilation:

• The analysis part breaks up the source

program into constituent pieces

• creates an intermediate representation of the

source program.

11
 The Analysis-Synthesis Model of
Compilation:

• The synthesis part constructs the desired

target program from the intermediate
representation.

12
 The Analysis-Synthesis Model of
Compilation:

source Front IR Back machine

code End End code

errors

13
 The Analysis-Synthesis Model of
Compilation:

• During analysis, the operations implied by the

source program are determined and recorded
in a hierarchical structure called a tree.

• Often, a special kind of tree called a syntax

tree is used.

14
 The Analysis-Synthesis Model of
Compilation:

• In syntax tree each node represents an

operation and the children of the node
represent the arguments of the operation.

• For example, a syntax tree of an assignment

statement is shown below.

15
The Analysis-Synthesis Model of
Compilation:

16
17
 Analysis of the Source Program:

• In compiling, analysis consists of three phases:

– Linear Analysis:
– Hierarchical Analysis:
– Semantic Analysis:

18
 Analysis of the Source Program:

• Linear Analysis:

– In which the stream of characters making up the

source program is read from left-to-right and
grouped into tokens that are sequences of
characters having a collective meaning.

19
 Scanning or Lexical Analysis (Linear
Analysis):

• In a compiler, linear analysis is called lexical analysis

or scanning.

• For example, in lexical analysis the characters in the

assignment statement

• Position: = initial + rate * 60

• Would be grouped into the following tokens:
20
 Scanning or Lexical Analysis (Linear
Analysis):
• The identifier, position.
• The assignment symbol :=
• The identifier initial.
• The plus sign.
• The identifier rate.
• The multiplication sign.
• The number 60.

21
 Scanning or Lexical Analysis (Linear
Analysis):

• The blanks separating the characters of these

tokens would normally be eliminated during
the lexical analysis.

22
23
 Analysis of the Source Program:

• Hierarchical Analysis:

– In which characters or tokens are grouped

hierarchically into nested collections with
collective meaning.

24
 Syntax Analysis or Hierarchical Analysis
(Parsing):

• Hierarchical analysis is called parsing or syntax

analysis.

• It involves grouping the tokens of the source

program into grammatical phases that are
used by the compiler to synthesize output.

25
 Syntax Analysis or Hierarchical Analysis
(Parsing):

• The grammatical phrases of the source

program are represented by a parse tree.

26
 Syntax Analysis or Hierarchical Analysis
(Parsing):
Assignment
Statement
:=
Identifier Expression
Position +
Expression Expression
Identifier *
Initial
Expression Expression
Identifier Number
Rate 60

27
 Syntax Analysis or Hierarchical Analysis
(Parsing):
• In the expression initial + rate * 60, the phrase
rate * 60 is a logical unit because the usual
conventions of arithmetic expressions tell us
that the multiplication is performed before
addition.
• Because the expression initial + rate is
followed by a *, it is not grouped into a single
phrase by itself

28
 Syntax Analysis or Hierarchical Analysis
(Parsing):

• The hierarchical structure of a program is

usually expressed by recursive rules.

• For example, we might have the following

rules, as part of the definition of expression:

29
 Syntax Analysis or Hierarchical Analysis
(Parsing):
• Any identifier is an expression.
• Any number is an expression
• If expression1 and expression2 are expressions,
then so are
– Expression1 + expression2
– Expression1 * expression2
– (Expression1 )

30
31
 Analysis of the Source Program:

• Semantic Analysis:

– In which certain checks are performed to ensure

that the components of a program fit together
meaningfully.

32
 Semantic Analysis:

• The semantic analysis phase checks the source

program for semantic errors and gathers type
information for the subsequent code-
generation phase.

33
 Semantic Analysis:

• It uses the hierarchical structure determined

by the syntax-analysis phase to identify the
operators and operand of expressions and
statements.

34
 Semantic Analysis:

• An important component of semantic analysis

is type checking.

• Here are the compiler checks that each

operator has operands that are permitted by
the source language specification.

35
 Semantic Analysis:

• For example, when a binary arithmetic

operator is applied to an integer and real. In
this case, the compiler may need to be
converting the integer to a real. As shown in
figure given below

36
Semantic Analysis:

37
38
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:
• A compiler operates in phases.

• Each of which transforms the source program

from one representation to another.

• A typical decomposition of a compiler is

shown in fig given below

39
1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

40
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• Linear Analysis:

– In which the stream of characters making up the

source program is read from left-to-right and
grouped into tokens that are sequences of
characters having a collective meaning.

41
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• In a compiler, linear analysis is called lexical analysis

or scanning.

• For example, in lexical analysis the characters in the

assignment statement

• Position: = initial + rate * 60

• Would be grouped into the following tokens:
42
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:
• The identifier, position.
• The assignment symbol :=
• The identifier initial.
• The plus sign.
• The identifier rate.
• The multiplication sign.
• The number 60.

43
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• The blanks separating the characters of these

tokens would normally be eliminated during
the lexical analysis.

44
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• Hierarchical Analysis:

– In which characters or tokens are grouped

hierarchically into nested collections with
collective meaning.

45
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• Hierarchical analysis is called parsing or syntax

analysis.

• It involves grouping the tokens of the source

program into grammatical phases that are
used by the compiler to synthesize output.

46
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• The grammatical phrases of the source

program are represented by a parse tree.

47
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:
Assignment
Statement
:=
Identifier Expression
Position +
Expression Expression
Identifier *
Initial
Expression Expression
Identifier Number
Rate 60

48
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:
• In the expression initial + rate * 60, the phrase
rate * 60 is a logical unit because the usual
conventions of arithmetic expressions tell us
that the multiplication is performed before
addition.
• Because the expression initial + rate is
followed by a *, it is not grouped into a single
phrase by itself

49
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• The hierarchical structure of a program is

usually expressed by recursive rules.

• For example, we might have the following

rules, as part of the definition of expression:

50
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:
• Any identifier is an expression.
• Any number is an expression
• If expression1 and expression2 are expressions,
then so are
– Expression1 + expression2
– Expression1 * expression2
– (Expression1 )

51
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• Semantic Analysis:

– In which certain checks are performed to ensure

that the components of a program fit together
meaningfully.

52
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• The semantic analysis phase checks the source

program for semantic errors and gathers type
information for the subsequent code-
generation phase.

53
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• It uses the hierarchical structure determined

by the syntax-analysis phase to identify the
operators and operand of expressions and
statements.

54
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• An important component of semantic analysis

is type checking.

• Here are the compiler checks that each

operator has operands that are permitted by
the source language specification.

55
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

• For example, when a binary arithmetic

operator is applied to an integer and real. In
this case, the compiler may need to be
converting the integer to a real. As shown in
figure given below

56
1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

57
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:
• Symbol Table Management:
– An essential function of a compiler is to record the
identifiers used in the source program and collect
information about various attributes of each
identifier.

– These attributes may provide information about

the storage allocated for an identifier, its type, its
scope.

58
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:
– The symbol table is a data structure containing a
record for each identifier with fields for the
attributes of the identifier.

– When an identifier in the source program is

detected by the lexical analyzer, the identifier is
entered into the symbol table

59
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:
– However, the attributes of an identifier cannot
normally be determined during lexical analysis.

– For example, in a Pascal declaration like

– Var position, initial, rate : real;
– The type real is not known when position, initial
and rate are seen by the lexical analyzer.

60
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:
– The remaining phases gets information about
identifiers into the symbol table and then use this
information in various ways.

– For example, when doing semantic analysis and

intermediate code generation, we need to know
what the types of identifiers are, so we can check
that the source program uses them in valid ways,
and so that we can generate the proper operations
on them.
61
 1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:
– The code generator typically enters and uses
detailed information about the storage assigned to
identifiers.

62
63
 Error Detection and Reporting:
• Each phase can encounter errors.

• However, after detecting an error, a phase

must somehow deal with that error, so that
compilation can proceed, allowing further
errors in the source program to be detected.

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 Error Detection and Reporting:
• A compiler that stops when it finds the first
error is not as helpful as it could be.

• The syntax and semantic analysis phases

usually handle a large fraction of the errors
detectable by the compiler.

65
 Error Detection and Reporting:
• Errors where the token stream violates the
structure rules (syntax) of the language are
determined by the syntax analysis phase.

• The lexical phase can detect errors where the

characters remaining in the input do not form
any token of the language.

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67
 Intermediate Code Generation:
• After Syntax and semantic analysis, some
compilers generate an explicit intermediate
representation of the source program.

• We can think of this intermediate

representation as a program for an abstract
machine.

68
 Intermediate Code Generation:
• This intermediate representation should have
two important properties;
– it should be easy to produce,
– easy to translate into the target program.

69
 Intermediate Code Generation:
• We consider an intermediate form called
“three-address code,”

• which is like the assembly language for a

machine in which every memory location can
act like a register.

70
 Intermediate Code Generation:
• Three-address code consists of a sequence of
instructions, each of which has at most three
operands.

• The source program in (1.1) might appear in

three-address code as

71
 Intermediate Code Generation:
(1.3)
• Temp1 := inttoreal (60)
• Temp2 := id3 * temp1
• Temp3 := id2 + temp2
• id1 := temp3

72
73
 Code Optimization:
• The code optimization phase attempts to
improve the intermediate code, so that faster-
running machine code will result.

74
 Code Optimization:
• Some optimizations are trivial.

• For example, a natural algorithm generates

the intermediate code (1.3), using an
instruction for each operator in the tree
representation after semantic analysis, even
though there is a better way to perform the
same calculation, using the two instructions.

75
 Code Optimization:
(1.4)
• Temp1 := id3 * 60.0
• id := id2 + temp1

• There is nothing wrong with this simple

algorithm, since the problem can be fixed
during the code-optimization phase.

76
 Code Optimization:
• That is, the compiler can deduce that the
conversion of 60 from integer to real
representation can be done once and for all at
compile time, so the inttoreal operation can
be eliminated.

77
 Code Optimization:
• Besides, temp3 is used only once, to transmit
its value to id1. It then becomes safe to
substitute id1 for temp3, whereupon the last
statement of 1.3 is not needed and the code
of 1.4 results.

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79
 Code Generation
• The final phase of the compiler is the
generation of target code

• consisting normally of relocatable machine

code or assembly code.

80
 Code Generation
• Memory locations are selected for each of the
variables used by the program.

• Then, intermediate instructions are each

translated into a sequence of machine
instructions that perform the same task.

• A crucial aspect is the assignment of variables to

registers.
81
 Code Generation
• For example, using registers 1 and 2, the
translation of the code of 1.4 might become

• MOVF id3, r2
• MULF #60.0, r2
• MOVF id2, r1
• ADDF r2, r1
• MOVF r1, id1
82
 Code Generation
• The first and second operands of each
instruction specify a source and destination,
respectively.

• The F in each instruction tells us that

instructions deal with floating-point numbers.

83
 Code Generation
• This code moves the contents of the address
id3 into register 2, and then multiplies it with
the real-constant 60.0.

• The # signifies that 60.0 is to be treated as a

constant.

84
 Code Generation
• The third instruction moves id2 into register 1
and adds to it the value previously computed
in register 2

• Finally, the value in register 1 is moved into

the address of id1.

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86
 1.4 Cousins of the Compiler:
• As we saw in given figure, the input to a
compiler may be produced by one or more
preprocessors, and further processing of the
compiler’s output may be needed before
running machine code is obtained.

87
Skeletal Source Program

Preprocessor

Source program

Compiler

Target assembly program

Assembler

Relocatable machine code

Loader/link-editor
LIBRARY, RELOCATABLE
OBJECT FILES
Absolute machine code

1.3. A LANGUAGE-PROCESSING SYSTEM 88

 1.4 Cousins of the Compiler:
• Preprocessors:
• preprocessors produce input to compilers.
They may perform the following functions:

– Macro Processing:
– File inclusion:
– “Rational” Preprocessors:
– Language extensions:

89
 Preprocessors:
• Macro Processing:

– A preprocessor may allow a user to define macros

that are shorthand’s for longer constructs.

90
 Preprocessors:
• File inclusion:
– A preprocessor may include header files into the
program text.

– For example, the C preprocessor causes the

contents of the file <global.h> to replace the
statement #include <global.h> when it processes a
file containing this statement.

91
 Preprocessors:
• defs.h • main.c

• • //////
#include “defs.h”
• ////// • //////
• …---…---…---
• ////// • //////
• …---…---…---
• ////// • …---…---…---
• …---…---…---
• …---…---…---
• …---…---…---

92
 Preprocessors:
• “Rational” Preprocessors:
– These processors augment older languages with
more modern flow-of-control and data-structuring
facilities.

93
 Preprocessors:
• Language extensions:
– These processors attempt to add capabilities to
the language by what amounts to built-in macros.
– For example, the language Equal is a database
query language embedded in C. Statements
beginning with ## are taken by the preprocessor
to be database-access statements, unrelated to C,
and are translated into procedure calls on routines
that perform the database access.

94
 Assemblers:
• Some compilers produce assembly code that
is passed to an assembler for further
processing.

• Other compilers perform the job of the

assembler, producing relocatable machine
code that can be passed directly to the
loader/link-editor.

95
 Assemblers:

• Here we shall review the relationship between

assembly and machine code.

96
 Assemblers:
• Assembly code is a mnemonic version of
machine code.

• In which names are used instead of binary

codes for operations, and names are also
given to memory addresses.

97
 Assemblers:
• A typical sequence of assembly instructions
might be

• MOV a , R1
• ADD #2 , R1
• MOV R1 , b

98
 Assemblers:
• This code moves the contents of the address a
into register 1, then adds the constant 2 to it,
reading the contents of register 1 as a fixed-
point number, and finally stores the result in
the location named by b. thus, it computes
b:=a+2.

99
Two-Pass Compiler:

100
 Two-Pass Compiler:
• The simplest form of assembler makes two
passes over the input.

101
 Two-Pass Compiler:
• in the first pass, all the identifiers that denote
storage locations are found and stored in a
symbol table

• Identifiers are assigned storage locations as

they are encountered for the first time, so after
reading 1.6, for example, the symbol table
might contain the entries shown in given below.

102
 Two-Pass Compiler:
MOV a , R1 Identifiers Address
ADD #2 , R1 a 0
MOV R1 , b b 4

103
 Two-Pass Compiler:
• In the second pass, the assembler scans the input
again.

• This time, it translates each operation code into

the sequence of bits representing that operation
in machine language.

• The output of the 2nd pass is usually relocatable

machine code.
104
 Loaders and Link-Editors:
• usually, a program called a loader performs
the two functions of loading and link-editing.

105
 Loaders and Link-Editors:
• The process of loading consists of taking
relocatable machine code, altering the
relocatable addresses, and placing the altered
instructions and data in memory at the proper
location.

106
 Loaders and Link-Editors:
• The link-editor allows us to make a single
program from several files of relocatable
machine code.

107
108
 1.5
The Grouping of Phases:

109
 Front and Back Ends:
• The phases are collected into a front end and
a back end.

• The front end consists of those phases that

depend primarily on the source language and
are largely independent of the target machine.

110
 Front and Back Ends:
• These normally include lexical and syntactic
analysis, the creating of the symbol table,
semantic analysis, and the generation of
intermediate code.

• A certain among of code optimization can be

done by the front end as well.

111
 Front and Back Ends:
• The front end also includes the error handling
that goes along with each of these phases.

112
 Front and Back Ends:
• The back end includes those portions of the
compiler that depend on the target machine.

• And generally, these portions do not depend

on the source language, depend on just the
intermediate language.

113
 Front and Back Ends:
• In the back end, we find aspects of the code
optimization phase, and we find code
generation, along with the necessary error
handling and symbol table operations.

114
115
Passes:

116
117
118
 Compiler-Construction Tools:
• The compiler writer, like any programmer, can
profitably use tools such as

– Debuggers,
– Version managers,
– Profilers and so on.

119
 Compiler-Construction Tools:
• In addition to these software-development
tools, other more specialized tools have been
developed for helping implement various
phases of a compiler.

120
 Compiler-Construction Tools:
• Shortly after the first compilers were written,
systems to help with the compiler-writing
process appeared.
• These systems have often been referred to as
– Compiler-compilers,
– Compiler-generators,
– Or Translator-writing systems.

121
 Compiler-Construction Tools:
• Some general tools have been created for the
automatic design of specific compiler
components.
• These tools use specialized languages for
specifying and implementing the component,
and many use algorithms that are quite
sophisticated.

122
 Compiler-Construction Tools:
• The most successful tools are those that hide
the details of the generation algorithm and
produce components that can be easily
integrated into the remainder of a compiler.

123
 Compiler-Construction Tools:
• The following is a list of some useful compiler-
construction tools:
– Parser generators
– Scanner generators
– Syntax directed translation engines
– Automatic code generators
– Data-flow engines

124
 Compiler-Construction Tools:
• Parser generators
– These produce syntax analyzers, normally from
input that is based on a context-free grammar.
– In early compilers, syntax analysis consumed not
only a large fraction of the running time of a
compiler, but a large fraction of the intellectual
effort of writing a compiler.
– This phase is considered one of the easiest to
implement.

125
 Compiler-Construction Tools:
• Scanner generators:
– These tools automatically generate lexical
analyzers, normally from a specification based on
regular expressions.

– The basic organization of the resulting lexical

analyzer is in effect a finite automaton.

126
 Compiler-Construction Tools:
• Syntax directed translation engines:
– These produce collections of routines that walk
the parse tree, generating intermediate code.

– The basic idea is that one or more “translations”

are associated with each node of the parse tree,
and each translation is defined in terms of
translations at its neighbor nodes in the tree.

127
 Compiler-Construction Tools:
• Automatic code generators:

– Such a tool takes a collection of rules that define

the translation of each operation of the
intermediate language into the machine language
for the target machine.

128
• Data-flow engines:

– Much of the information needed to perform good

code optimization involves “data-flow analysis,”
the gathering of information how values are
transmitted from one part of a program to each
other part.

129