Thermodynamics

concepts
The Copperbelt University

Dr. L Siwale
 What is thermodynamics
• Thermo-heat –dynamics
• Thermodynamics is one of the most important
global subjects because it drives the
fundamentals of energy, environment, and
climate.
•
Application
•Turbines
•Power plants
•domestic
•Race cars
(heat engines)
•Human body
 Example of power plants
• The steam expands in the turbine
• Work is performed through blades to shaft power
• Electrical power is generated
• The steam is condensed –heat exchanger- condenser
• Cooling water is used for district space heating
• The water is pumped back to the boiler
• A fuel is burned in the boiler to produce steam/several
heat exchangers are used to economise the plant
eg.pre-heating of condensate or air in fuel combustion
 Learning objectives
►Understanding of several fundamental
concepts in energy analysis. . . Including
closed (also called control mass) and open
systems (also called control volume),
boundary and surroundings, property, state,
and processes.
►Apply SI units for specific volume, pressure,
and temperature.
 Defining Systems
►System: comprises a device or combination of
such that is being studied.
►Surroundings: everything external to the
system.
►Boundary: separates system from its
surroundings. Boundary

System

Surroundings
 Closed System or Control Mass

►A system that always contains

the same matter.
►No transfer of mass across its
boundary can occur.
►Isolated system: special type of
closed system that is not
influenced by the surroundings.
►Depending on the process the
piston can become an open
system
 Open System or Control Volume
►A given region of space through which mass flows.
►Mass ,heat and work may cross the boundary of a
control volume.
 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views
►Systems can be described from the macroscopic and
microscopic points of view.
►The microscopic approach aims to characterize the behavior of
the atomic or molecular particles making up a system.
►The macroscopic approach describes system behavior in terms
of the gross effects or averaged that can be measured by
instruments such a pressure gages and thermometers.
►Engineering thermodynamics predominately uses the
macroscopic approach; or classic thermodynamics or study of
matter in thermodynamic states that don’t change with time.
►Continum concept (matter) :The mean free path of the
molecules does not approach the order of magnitude of the
dimensions of the vessels.
 Property
►A characteristic of a working substance in a system
to which a numerical value can be assigned at a given
time without knowledge of the previous behavior of
the working substance or the system.
►Examples include:

►Mass: m kg
►Volume: V m3 Gas
►Energy: J (Joules)
►Pressure: N/m2= Pa
►Temperature: K, oC, oF, R
 State
►The condition of a working substance in a system as
described by its properties.
►Example: The state of the Gas in the system shown is
described by p, V, T,….
►The state is defined by providing the values of a
limited number of independent properties. All other
properties are dependent on these.
State: p, V, T, …

Gas
 Equilibrium States and Processes
• Equilibrium State – no
inherent tendency to change.
Process path 3
– Mechanical  ΣF = 0
Process path 2
– Thermal  ΔT = 0
– Phase  no evaporation,
condensation, freezing,
melting, or sublimation 1
– Chemical  no net
chemical reaction
►Process is defined as a transformation from one
equilibrium state to another equilibrium state.
• Process path may or may not consist of interim
equilibrium states (ΣF ≈ 0, ΔT ≈ 0, negligible species
concentration gradient). Multiple processes can lead to
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the same end state.
Thermal Processes:
When a substance changes from on state of
equilibrium to another state of equilibrium, the
steps or path between the initial and final
thermodynamic states is call the process.

Piston
Working
Fluid
cylinder
Initial Final
 Types of Processes
• Isothermal  ΔT = 0
• Isobaric or isopiestic  Δp = 0
• Isochoric  ΔV = 0
• Adiabatic  No heat transfer
• Other important terms: Steady flow 
constant mass flow rate, Steady state 
system properties ≠ f(t)

14
 Process
►Example: Since V2 > V1, the gas has undergone a
process from State 1 to State 2.

State 1: p1, V1, T1, … State 2: p2, V2, T2, …

Gas Gas

State 1: Assembled State 2: Disassembled

 REVERSIBLE PROCESS
A reversible process for a system is
defined as a process that, once having taken
place, can be reversed, and in so doing
leaves no change in either the system or
surroundings.
In other words the system and
surroundings are returned to their original
conditions before the process took place.
In reality, there are not truly reversible
processes; however, for analysis purpose,
one uses reversible process to make the
analysis simpler, and to determine
maximum efficiencies.
Therefore, the reversible process is an
appropriate starting point on which to base
engineering study and calculation.
The criteria of reversibility are as follows:
The process must be frictionless
The difference in pressure between fluid
and its surrounding during the process must
infinitely small
The difference in temperature between fluid
and its surrounding during the process must
infinitely small
 REVERIBLE WORK dv

Work done  Fdx  PAdx  Pdv

2 dv – change in volume

Work done   PdV Pressure- N/m2 or Pa

Volume - (m3 )
1 Work – Nm (J)
P P
P
2 1
Area under the curve - expansion process
Work done

Compression
process
Work (+ve)
Work (-ve)

Volume V
Volume V
increases piston
decreases piston
PROPERTY DIAGRAM
It is a diagram used to describe a system status by
means of two independent property axes e.g. PV,
TV,P PT State2
Process
P2 2

State1

P1 1

V2 V1 V
Piston

Working Fluid

cylinder 2 1
 SOLUTION METHODOLOGY
 Identify the governing law (e.g PV = C, where C is
constant);
 It is essential to represent the process (processes)
on the property diagram (PV, TV, etc);
 From governing law  P = C/V
 Substitute P = C/V in the formula, W = Pdv
 Then, determine work
 C may be determine from the governing law (e.g
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = C
 Types of Properties
• Extensive
– Depends on mass of system
– Examples: mass, volume,
energy, etc.
• Intensive
– Independent of mass
– Examples: pressure and
temperature.
• Specific
– Extensive property divided
by mass of the system

21
 Units
►A unit is any specified amount of a quantity by
comparison with which any other quantity of the
same kind is measured (e.g., meter, kilometers,
feet, and miles are all units of length).
►Two systems of units:
►SI (Système International d’Unités)
►English Engineering units.
 Units

In these unit systems, mass, length, and time are base units and force
has a unit derived from them using,
F = ma (Eq. 1.1)
SI: 1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2) = 1 kg∙m/s2 (Eq. 1.2)
English:
1 lbf = (1 lb)(32.1740 ft/s2) = 32.1740 lb∙ft/s2 (Eq. 1.5)
 UNIT PREFIXES
Factor prefix symbol factor prefix symbol

1012 tera T 10-3 milli m

109 giga G 10-6 micro μ

106 mega M 10-9 nano n

103 kilo K 10-12 pico p

 v
Mass, Specific Volume ( ), Density ()
►Matter is made up of “small,” and “homogeneous,” continua
distributed throughout “space.” Homogeneous refers to our choice of
defining averaged properties.
►When substances are treated as continua, it is possible to speak of
their intensive thermodynamic properties “at a point.”
►At any instant the density () at a point is defined as (see text book
equations 1.6 and 1.7)

m 1
  lim   
V V '  V  v
m   dV
V

m  m 
 |holding all other properties fixed  lim  
V V 0  V 
 v
Molar Specific Volume ( ), Number of mol (n)
►Avogadro’s Number represents the number of molecules in mass
containing one “gram mole” or “mole” or “mol.”
► Av=6.022x1023 #/gram mole. A “kmol,” will have 103 times more #

v  Mv, where M is molecular weight in g / mol or kg / kmol

m
n
M
Molecular/atomic weights M for substances generally of
interest in thermodynamics are in Table A-1: C = 12.01
kg/kmol, O2=32.00 kg/kmol, N2=28.01 kg/kmol. Air is a
mixture 1 kmol O2 and 3.76 kmol N2 plus small amounts of
CO2, Ar, H2O etc. Equivalent Molecular Weight of air is
given as 28.97 kg/kmol in Table A-1, p. 890 of text.
 Pressure Units, Absolute and Gauge Pressure
► SI unit of pressure is the pascal:
1 pascal = 1 N/m2
► Multiples of the pascal are frequently used:
► 1 kPa = 103 N/m2, 1 bar = 105 N/m2, 1 MPa = 106 N/m2
► English units for pressure are:
► pounds force per square foot, lbf/ft2 or pounds force per square inch
“psi”, lbf/in2
►When system pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, the term
gage pressure is used.
p(gage) = p(absolute) – patm(absolute)
(Eq. 1.14)
►When atmospheric pressure is greater than system pressure, the term
vacuum pressure is used.
p(vacuum) = patm(absolute) – p(absolute) (Eq.
1.15)
Atmospheric, Absolute and Gauge
Pressure
Pabs,1
Ordinary pressure
gauge Pabs,1
Patm ΔP=Pabs,1-Patm
Ordinary vacuum gauge
Pabs,2 ΔP=Patm-Pabs,2

0
 P A
[PA] absolute Pressure (+ve)

Pg [PgA] Gauge Pressure (+ve)

101325 Pa [Po] Atmospheric Pressure

O
Pa
[PgB] Gauge Pressure (-ve)

B
Po

[PB] absolute Pressure (+ve)

N/m2 = Pascal (Pa)

1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa Pa = PO + Pg
I atm = 101325 Pa = 1.03 bar
 Hydrostatic Pressure
• The pressure throughout an uninterrupted fluid is constant at a fixed
depth.

Think about the difference in pressure between points H and I,

while we discuss the expressions for hydrostatic pressures.
 Pressure Measurement

• We can make use of the change in pressure with

elevation in a fluid to measure pressure.
• Examples of devices used to measure pressure are:
manometer barometer
p=patm

p  p atm  gh g p atm  pvapor   M gh

Cortesy: Office of Basic Energy Sciences, U. S. Department of Energy
 Summary
► concepts of thermodynamics, closed & open systems,
continua, etc properties such as specific volume and density
for small volumes of working substances using limits,
integrals and differentials in an intuitive manner defined.
► gravitational forces, pressure, and considered a couple
of real world problems involving buoyancy for gases and
liquids over very wide range of temperature defined.
► atomic, to Nano and Micro to Milli scales discussed.
► Energy and Temperature properties of mass considered
next
 Temperature (T)
►If two substances (one warmer than the other) are
brought into contact and isolated from their surroundings, they
interact thermally with changes in observable properties.
►When changes in observable properties cease, the two
substances are in thermal equilibrium.
►Temperature is a physical property that determines
whether the two substances are in thermal equilibrium.
► A thermometer is used to measure temperature using
a change in a thermometric property of a thermometric
substance.
 Thermometers for Temperature Measurements
► Liquid-in-glass thermometer
►A glass capillary tube connected to a bulb filled with
liquid and sealed. Space above liquid occupied by
vapor or an inert gas.
►As temperature increases, liquid expands and the
length (L) of the liquid in the capillary indicates the
temperature.
►The liquid is the thermometric substance. L is the
thermometric property.
►Other types of thermometers: Thermocouples,
Thermistors, Radiation thermometers and optical
pyrometers
 Temperatures of Interest
► Some temperatures and ranges of interest
► 0 K is the absolute lower limit of a temperature scale
► Ice temperature is 273 K
► Boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure is 373 K
► Healthy human body temperature ~ 309 K
► High fever human body temperature ~ 313 K
► Hydrocarbon “yellow flame” temperature 1400 K – 1800 K
► Hydrocarbon “blue flame” temperature 1900 K – 2400 K
► Effective solar temperature is considered to be 5500K
► Absolute upper limit of temperature is not defined yet but
engineering higher than flame temperature materials is
challenging. Materials with porous cooling walls may be
used.
 Engineering Design and Analysis
Engineering Design Engineering Analysis
Recognize (or create) a need and Apply fundamental principles to the
define all requirements and functionality of the design.
constraints associated with it.
Select “best design,” criteria: cost, Conservation of mass, momentum
efficiency, size, weight, life. species and energy must be
followed.
Consider product life cycle Performance prediction, testing,
reliability, manufacturability, and suggestion of improvements.
maintenance, sustainability.
Customer and Business Limitations based on second law of
considerations: Aesthetics, thermodynamics.
appearance, color, customer
appeal, first to market, capital.
Compatibility with other products, Evaluate potential for scaling in
systems, policies. terms of product size or product
volume.
 Temperature Scales

ΔTºR = ΔTºF = 1.8 x (ΔTK = ΔTºC) T(oC) = T(K) – 273.15 (Eq. 1.17)

T(oF) = T(oR) – 459.67 (Eq. 1.18)

USE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURES IN
ALL YOUR PROBLEM SOLUTIONS.
 o
C and oF Relationship
o
F (100, 212)
o
C o
F

(-17.7, 0) (0, 32) -17.7 0

0 32
o
C 100 212
-273 -460

(-273, -460)
ΔTºR = ΔTºF = 1.8 x (ΔTK = ΔTºC)
T(oC) = T(K) – 273.15 (Eq. 1.17)

T(oF) = T(oR) – 459.67 (Eq. 1.18)

USE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURES IN YOUR PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

BECAUSE THE DIFFERENCES ARE IDENTICAL AND SOME
FORMULAE LIKE THE IDEAL GAS LAW REQUIRE TEMPERATURE
IN ABSOLUTE UNITS.
 Problem Solving Techniques

A fairly straightforward problem:

•The system is easy to define (only one type).

•There are few basic equations.

 Thermodynamics problems are more complicated
• For example, consider a small
Exhaust portion of a coal/oil/natural
Plume
gas burning power plant.
Steam
• Many interconnected working
substances such as fuels, air,
exhaust, and ash.
Exhaust
• Many interconnected systems
and control volumes
• Additional working substances
Fuel such as liquid water becoming
Coal/Oil/Natural
Gas
saturated water, wet steam,
saturated steam, superheated
Ash
Feed Water steam etc.
Air
 Problem Solving Techniques

Important steps to solve any problem in a systematic

manner.
•Find: What quantities are of interest? Usually dictates
the definition of the System.
•System: Control mass/control volume choice indicates
what mass flow and energy interactions exist.
•Basic Equations: Which equations are required to
determine quantities of interest (related to Find)
•Given: What quantities are known?
•Assumptions: Do the number of unknowns and
available equations match? Otherwise, you need
appropriate simplifications and assumptions.
•Solution: Evaluate properties, use correct units,
perform calculation, discuss result(s) if necessary.
 Summary
►Temperature, different scales of specifying
temperature and their inter-relations.
► Temperatures of engineering interest was
summarized.
► Reasons behind the complexity of thermodynamics
problems was defined and a methodology for solutions
proposed.
► example problems.
 Resources
• Fundamentals of Engineering
Thermodynamics, Moran, Shapiro, Boettner
and Bailey, Seventh Edition
• Fundamentals of thermodynamics
Sonntag,borgnakke,van wylen sixth edition.
John wiley and sons Inc.