UNIT III

LOADERS AND LINKERS

This Unit gives you…
Basic Loader Functions
Machine-Dependent Loader Features
Machine-Independent Loader Feature
Loader Design Options
Implementation Examples
BASIC DEFINITION
Loading - which allocates memory
location and brings the object program
into memory for execution - (Loader)
Linking- which combines two or more
separate object programs and supplies the
information needed to allow references
between them - (Linker)
Relocation - which modifies the object
program so that it can be loaded at an
address different from the location
originally specified - (Linking Loader)
ROLE OF LOADER

Source Object
Object
Translator Loader program
Program ready for
Program execution

Translator – Assembler/Compiler

Memory
ROLE OF LOADER

Source Object
Object
Assembler Loader program
Program ready for
Program execution

Memory
ROLE OF LOADER AND LINKER
Memory

Source
Object
Assembler Linker
Program
Program Object
program
ready for
Executable execution

Code

Loader
WE KNOW…
• Source Program – Assembly Language
• Object Program - From assembler
- Contains translated instructions and
data values from the source program
• Executable Code - From Linker
• Loader - Loads the executable code to the
specified memory locations and code gets
executed.
 WE NEED…THREE PROCESSES
•Loading - which allocates memory location
and brings the object program into memory
for execution - Loader
•Linking- which combines two or more
separate object programs and supplies the
information needed to allow references
between them - Linker
•Relocation - which modifies the object
program so that it can be loaded at an address
different from the location originally specified
- Linking Loader
 BASIC LOADER FUNCTIONS

•A Loader is a system program that performs

the loading function
•It brings object program into memory and
starts its execution
TYPE OF LOADERS

•absolute loader
•bootstrap loader
•relocating loader (relative loader)
•direct linking loader
 ABSOLUTE LOADER
•Operation is very simple
•The object code is loaded to specified
locations in the memory
•At the end the loader jumps to the specified
address to begin execution of the loaded
program
ROLE OF ABSOLUTE LOADER

1000
Object Absolute Object
Program Loader program
ready for
execution
2000

Memory
ABSOLUTE LOADER

•Advantage
- Simple and efficient
•Disadvantage
- the need for programmer to specify the
actual address
- difficult to use subroutine libraries
• We have algorithm – next slide
Begin
read Header record
verify program name and length
read first Text record
while record type is <> ‘E’ do
begin
{if object code is in character form, convert
into internal representation}
move object code to specified location in
memory
read next object program record
end
jump to address specified in End record
end
OBJECT PROGRAM
 Space for
2 inch x 2 inch
Format-1(a) (in size Picture
PowerPoint)
OBJECT CODE REPRESENTATION
•Each byte of assembled code is given using
its hexadecimal representation in character
form
•Easy to read by human beings
•Each byte of object code is stored as a
single byte
•Most machine store object programs in a
binary form
•We must be sure that our file and device
conventions do not cause some of the
program bytes to be interpreted as control
characters
A SIMPLE BOOTSTRAP LOADER
•When a computer is first tuned on or
restarted, a special type of absolute loader,
called bootstrap loader is executed
•This bootstrap loads the first program to
be run by the computer -- usually an
operating system
EXAMPLE (SIC BOOTSTRAP
LOADER)

•The bootstrap itself begins at address 0

•It loads the OS starting address 0x80
•No header record or control information, the
object code is consecutive bytes of memory
Begin
X=0x80 (the address of the next memory
location to be loaded
Loop
AGETC (and convert it from the ASCII
character code to the value of the hexadecimal
digit)
save the value in the high-order 4 bits of S
AGETC
combine the value to form one byte A
(A+S)
store the value (in A) to the address in
register X
XX+1
SUBROUTINE GETC

GETC Aread one character

if A=0x04 then jump to 0x80
if A<48 then GETC
A  A-48 (0x30)
if A<10 then return
A  A-7
return
 MACHINE-DEPENDENT LOADER
FEATURES

Absolute Loader – Simple and efficient

Disadvantage is – programmer has to specify
the starting address
One program to run – no problem – not for
several
Difficult to use subroutine libraries efficiently
RELOCATION
Execution of the object program using any
part of the available and sufficient memory
The object program is loaded into memory
wherever there is room for it
The actual starting address of the object
program is not known until load time
RELOCATING LOADERS
•Efficient sharing of the machine with larger
memory and when several independent
programs are to be run together
•Support the use of subroutine libraries
efficiently
METHODS FOR SPECIFYING
RELOCATION
•Use of modification record Refer Figure
•Use of relocation bit Refer Figure
•Each instruction is associated with one
relocation bit
•These relocation bits in a Text record is
gathered into bit masks
 MODIFICATION RECORD
Modification record
col 1: M
col 2-7: relocation address
col 8-9: length (halfbyte)
col 10: flag (+/-)
col 11-17: segment name

•For complex machines

•Also called RLD specification
- Relocation and Linkage
Directory
 HCOPY 000000 001077
T000000 1D17202D69202D48101036…
4B105D3F2FEC032010

T00001D130F20160100030F200D4B10105D3E2003454F46
T001035 1DB410B400B44075101000…
33200857C003B850

T0010531D3B2FEA1340004F0000F1..53C003DF2008B85
0
T00070073B2FEF4F000005
M00000705+COPY
M00001405+COPY
M00002705+COPY
E000000 Figure
Object program with relocation by Modification records
 RELOCATION BIT

•For simple machines

•Relocation bit
- 0: no modification is necessary
- 1: modification is needed
 RELOCATION BIT

•For simple machines

•Relocation bit
- 0: no modification is necessary
- 1: modification is needed
Twelve-bit mask is used in each Text
record - col:10-12 – relocation bits
- since each text record contains less
than 12 words
- unused words are set to 0
- any value that is to be modified
during relocation must coincide with one
of these 3-byte segments - line 210
HCOPY 000000 00107A
T0000001EFFC140033481039000036280030300015…3C0003 
…
T00001E15E000C00364810610800334C0000…000003000000
T0010391EFFC040030000030…30103FD8105D280030...
T0010570A 8001000364C0000F1001000
T00106119FE0040030E01079…508039DC10792C0036...
E000000
Object program with relocation by bit mask
- FFC - all ten words are to be modified
- E00 - first three records are to be modified
PROGRAM LINKING
Goal - Resolve the problems with
EXTREF and EXTDEF from different
control sections
Example - Program in Fig. 3.8 and object
code in Figure (Refer)
 Use modification records for both
relocation and linking
 - address constant
 - external reference
EXTDEF (EXTERNAL DEFINITION
The EXTDEF statement in a control
section names symbols, called external
symbols, that are defined in this control
section and may be used by other sections
Ex: EXTDEF BUFFER, BUFFEND,
LENGTH (Refer Figure)
 EXTDEF LISTA, ENDA (Refer
Figure)
EXTREF (EXTERNAL REFERENCE)
The EXTREF statement names symbols
used in this (present) control section and
are defined elsewhere
◦ Ex: EXTREF RDREC, WRREC
(Refer Figure) EXTREF
LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC (Refer
Figure)
HOW TO IMPLEMENT THESE…
The assembler must include information
in the object program that will cause the
loader to insert proper values where they
are required – in the form of
 - Define record
 - Refer record
DEFINE RECORD

◦ Col. 1 D
◦ Col. 2-7Name of external symbol defined in
this control section
◦ Col. 8-13 Relative address within this control
section (hexadecimal)
◦ Col.14-73 Repeat information in Col. 2-13 for
other external symbols
 - D LISTA 000040 ENDA 000054
 - D LISTB 000060 ENDB 000070
REFER RECORD

◦ Col. 1 R
◦ Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol
referred to in this control section
◦ Col. 8-73 Name of other external
reference symbols
R LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC
R LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC
R LISTA ENDA LISTB ENDB
0000 PROGA START 0
EXTDEF LISTA, ENDA
EXTREF LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC
.
.
0020 REF1 LDA LISTA 03201D
0023 REF2 +LDT LISTB+4 77100004
0027 REF3 LDX #ENDA-LISTA 050014
.
.
0040 LISTA EQU *

0054 ENDA EQU *

0054 REF4 WORD ENDA-LISTA+LISTC 000014
0057 REF5 WORD ENDC-LISTC-10 FFFFF6
005A REF6 WORD ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 00003F
005D REF7 WORD ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) 000014
0060 REF8 WORD LISTB-LISTA FFFFC0
END REF1
0000 PROGB START 0
EXTDEF LISTB, ENDB
EXTREF LISTA, ENDA, LISTC, ENDC
.
.
0036 REF1 +LDA LISTA 03100000
003A REF2 LDT LISTB+4 772027
003D REF3 +LDX #ENDA-LISTA 05100000
.
.
0060 LISTB EQU *

0070 ENDB EQU *

0070 REF4 WORD ENDA-LISTA+LISTC 000000
0073 REF5 WORD ENDC-LISTC-10 FFFFF6
0076 REF6 WORD ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 FFFFFF
0079 REF7 WORD ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) FFFFF0
007C REF8 WORD LISTB-LISTA 000060
END
0000 PROGB START 0
EXTDEF LISTB, ENDB
EXTREF LISTA, ENDA, LISTC, ENDC
.
.
0036 REF1 +LDA LISTA 03100000
003A REF2 LDT LISTB+4 772027
003D REF3 +LDX #ENDA-LISTA 05100000
.
.
0060 LISTB EQU *

0070 ENDB EQU *

0070 REF4 WORD ENDA-LISTA+LISTC 000000
0073 REF5 WORD ENDC-LISTC-10 FFFFF6
0076 REF6 WORD ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 FFFFFF
0079 REF7 WORD ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) FFFFF0
007C REF8 WORD LISTB-LISTA 000060
END
H PROGA 000000 000063
D LISTA 000040 ENDA 000054
R LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC
.
.
T 000020 0A 03201D 77100004 050014
.
.
T 000054 0F 000014 FFFF6 00003F 000014 FFFFC0
M000024 05+LISTB
M000054 06+LISTC
M000057 06+ENDC
M000057 06 -LISTC
M00005A06+ENDC
M00005A06 -LISTC
M00005A06+PROGA
M00005D06-ENDB
M00005D06+LISTB
M00006006+LISTB
M00006006-PROGA
H PROGB 000000 00007F
D LISTB 000060 ENDB 000070
R LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC
.
.
T 000036 0B 03100000 772027 05100000
.
.
T 000007 0F 000000 FFFFF6 FFFFFF FFFFF0 000060
M000037 05+LISTA
M00003E 06+ENDA
M00003E 06 -LISTA
M000070 06 +ENDA
M000070 06 -LISTA
M000070 06 +LISTC
M000073 06 +ENDC
M000073 06 -LISTC
M000073 06 +ENDC
M000076 06 -LISTC
M000076 06+LISTA
H PROGC 000000 000051
D LISTC 000030 ENDC 000042
R LISTA ENDA LISTB ENDB
.
T 000018 0C 03100000 77100004 05100000
.
T 000042 0F 000030 000008 000011 000000 000000
M000019 05+LISTA
M00001D 06+LISTB
M000021 06+ENDA
M000021 06 -LISTA
M000042 06+ENDA
M000042 06 -LISTA
M000042 06+PROGC
M000048 06+LISTA
M00004B 06+ENDA
M00004B 006-LISTA
M00004B 06-ENDB
M00004B 06+LISTB
M00004E 06+LISTB
M00004E 06-LISTA
E
Program Linking Example
ReferFigure 3.5.2
Load address for control sections
◦ PROGA 004000 63
◦ PROGB 004063 7F
◦ PROGC 0040E2 51
•Load address for symbols
LISTA: PROGA+0040=4040
LISTB: PROGB+0060=40C3
LISTC: PROGC+0030=4112

•REF4 in PROGA
ENDA-LISTA+LISTC=14+4112=4126
(ENDA-LISTA = 14 (4054-4040)
T0000540F000014FFFFF600003F000014FFFFC0
M00005406+LISTC
Figure 3.5.1: Programs form the above figure after linking and loading
Figure 3.5.2: relocation and linking operations
performed on REF4 from PROGA
ALGORITHM AND DATA STRUCTURES
FOR A LINKING LOADER
Linking Loader uses two-passes logic
 - Pass 1: assign addresses to all
external symbols
 - Pass 2: perform the actual loading,
relocation, and linking
ESTAB (external symbol table) – main
data structure for a linking loader
 ESTAB FOR THE EXAMPLE GIVEN

Control section Symbol Address Length

PROGA 4000 63
LISTA 4040
ENDA 4054
PROGB 4063 7F
LISTB 40C3
ENDB 40D3
PROGC 40E2 51
LISTC 4112
ENDC 4124
PROGRAM LOGIC FOR PASS 1
Pass 1:
◦ - Assign addresses to all external symbols
Variables & Data structures
 - PROGADDR (program load address)
from OS
 - CSADDR (control section address)
 - CSLTH (control section length
 - ESTAB
 Refer Algorithm for Pass 1 of LL in Fig.
3.11(a)
◦ - Process Define Record
PROGRAM LOGIC FOR PASS 2
Pass 2:
◦ - Perform the actual loading, relocation,
and linking
Modification record
◦ - Lookup the symbol in ESTAB
End record for a main program
◦ - Transfer address
Refer Algorithm for Pass 2 of LL in Fig. 3.11(b)
◦ - Process Text record and Modification
record
IMPROVE EFFICIENCY, HOW?
Use of local searching instead of multiple
searches of ESTAB for the same symbol
◦ - assign a reference number to each
external symbol
◦ - the reference number is used in
Modification records
Implementation
◦ - 01: control section name
◦ - other: external reference symbols
Example - Refer Figure
SYMBOL AND ADDRESSES IN
PROGA

Ref No. Symbol Address

1 PROGA 4000
2 LISTB 40C3
3 ENDB 40D3
4 LISTC 4112
5 ENDC 4124

PROGA
SYMBOL AND ADDRESSES IN
PROGB

Ref No. Symbol Address

1 PROGB 4063
2 LISTA 4040
3 ENDA 4054
4 LISTC 4112
5 ENDC 4124

PROGB
SYMBOL AND ADDRESSES IN
PROGC

Ref No. Symbol Address

1 PROGC 4063
2 LISTA 4040
3 ENDA 4054
4 LISTB 40C3
5 ENDB 40D3

PROGC
ADVANTAGE OF REFERENCE-
NUMBER

The main advantage of reference number

mechanism is that it avoids multiple
searches of ESTAB for the same symbol
during the loading of a control section.
MACHINE-INDEPENDENT LOADER
FEATURES

Featuresthat are not directly related to

machine architecture and design
 - Automatic Library Search
 - Loader Options
AUTOMATIC LIBRARY SEARCH
This feature allows a programmer to use
standard subroutines without explicitly
including them in the program to be
loaded
The routines are automatically retrieved
from a library as they are needed during
linking
IMPLEMENTATION
Allows programmer to use subroutines
from one or more libraries
The subroutines called by the program
being loaded are automatically fetched
from the library, linked with the main
program and loaded
The loader searches the library or libraries
specified for routines that contain the
definitions of these symbols in the main
program
LOADER OPTIONS
Allow the user to specify options that
modify the standard processing
Specified using a command language
Specified as a part of job control language
that is processed by the operating system
Specified using loader control statements
in the source program.
EXAMPLE OPTIONS
INCLUDE program-name (library-name) - read
the designated object program from a library
DELETE csect-name – delete the named control
section from the set pf programs being loaded
CHANGE name1, name2 - external symbol
name1 to be changed to name2 wherever it
appears in the object programs
LIBRARY MYLIB – search MYLIB library
before standard libraries
NOCALL STDDEV, PLOT, CORREL – no
loading and linking of unneeded routines
EXAMPLE
LIBRARY UTLIB
INCLUDE READ (UTLIB)
INCLUDE WRITE (UTLIB)
DELETE RDREC, WRREC
CHANGE RDREC, READ
CHANGE WRREC, WRITE
NOCALL SQRT, PLOT
LOADER DESIGN OPTIONS
Common alternatives for organizing the
loading functions, including relocation
and linking
Linking Loaders – Perform all linking and
relocation at load time
Other Alternatives
Linkage editors – Perform linking prior to
load time
Dynamic linking – Linking function is
performed at execution time
LINKING LOADERS

Object
Program(s) The source
program is first
assembled or
compiled,
producing an
Library Linking
object program. A
loader linking loader
performs all linking
and loading
operations, and
loads the program
Memory into memory for
execution

Processing of an Object program using LL

 LINKAGE EDITORS

Object
Program (s)

Linkage
Library editor

Linked
program
Processing of an
Object program using Relocating
LE loader

Memory
LINKAGE EDITORS
A linkage editor, produces a linked
version of the program – often called a
load module or an executable image –
which is written to a file or library for
later execution
The linked program produced is generally
in a form that is suitable for processing by
a relocating loader.
SOME USEFUL FUNCTIONS…
An absolute object program can be created, if
starting address is already known
New versions of the library can be included
without changing the source program
Linkage editors can also be used to build
packages of subroutines or other control
sections that are generally used together
Linkage editors often allow the user to specify
that external references are not to be resolved by
automatic library search – linking will be done
later by linking loader – linkage editor + linking
loader – savings in space
DYNAMIC LINKING
The scheme that postpones the linking
function until execution
A subroutine is loaded and linked to the
rest of the program when it is first called –
usually called dynamic linking, dynamic
loading or load on call
ADVANTAGES…
Allow several executing programs to
share one copy of a subroutine or library
In an object oriented system, dynamic
linking makes it possible for one object to
be shared by several programs
Dynamic linking provides the ability to
load the routines only when (and if) they
are needed
The actual loading and linking can be
accomplished using operating system
service request – Refer Figure
BOOTSTRAP LOADERS
How is the loader itself loaded into the memory ?
When computer is started – with no program in
memory, a program present in ROM ( absolute
address) can be made executed – may be OS
itself or A Bootstrap loader, which in turn loads
OS and prepares it for execution.
The first record ( or records) is generally referred
to as a bootstrap loader – makes the OS to be
loaded
Such a loader is added to the beginning of all
object programs that are to be loaded into an
empty and idle system
IMPLEMENTATION EXAMPLES…
Brief description of loaders and linkers
for actual computers
They are
MS-DOS Linker - Pentium
architecture
SunOS Linkers - SPARC
architecture
Cray MPP Linkers – T3E architecture
MS-DOS LINKER
Microsoft MS-DOS linker for Pentium
and other x86 systems
Most MS-DOS compilers and assemblers
(MASM) produce object modules - .OBJ
files
MS-DOS LINK is a linkage editor that
combines one or more object modules to
produce a complete executable program
- .EXE file
MS-DOS OBJECT MODULE
Record Types Description
THEADR Translator
Header
TYPDEF,PUBDEF, EXTDEF External
symbols and references
LNAMES, SEGDEF, GRPDEF Segment
definition and grouping
LEDATA, LIDATA Translated
instructions and data
FIXUPP Relocation
and linking information
MODEND End of object
module
SUNOS LINKERS
SunOS provides two different linkers –
link-editor and run-time linker
Link-editor is invoked in the process of
assembling or compiling a program –
produces a single output module – one of
the following types (next slide)
An object module contains one or more
sections – representing instructions and
data area from the source program,
relocation and linking information,
external symbol table
TYPES OF OBJECT MODULE
A relocatable object module – suitable for
further link-editing
A static executable – with all symbolic
references bound and ready to run
A dynamic executable – in which some
symbolic references may need to be
bound at run time
A shared object – which provides services
that can be bound at run time to one ore
more dynamic executables
RUN-TIME LINKER
Uses dynamic linking approach
Run-time linker binds dynamic
executables and shared objects at
execution time
Performs relocation and linking
operations to prepare the program for
execution
CRAY MPP LINKER
Cray MPP (massively parallel
processing ) Linker
T3E system contains large number of
parallel processing elements (PEs) – Each
PE has local memory and has access to
remote memory (memory of other PEs)
The processing is divided among PEs -
contains shared data and private data
The loaded program gets copy of the
executable code, its private data and its
portion of the shared data
Cray MPP (massively parallel processing )
Linker
T3E system contains large number of parallel
processing elements (PEs) – Each PE has local
memory and has access to remote memory
(memory of other PEs)
The processing is divided among PEs -
contains shared data and private data
The loaded program gets copy of the
executable code, its private data and its
portion of the shared data
 PE0 PE1 PEn

Code Code Code

Private Private …………… Private

data data data

Shared Shared Shared

data-0 data-1 data-n

T3E program loaded on multiple PEs

THIS CHAPTER GAVE YOU…
BasicLoader Functions
Machine-Dependent Loader Features
Machine-Independent Loader Features
Loader Design Options
Implementation Examples
Thank you all