Radiography

Part 1.
Course Reference WIS 20
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Principles of Radiography
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test
object
Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material
through which it is travelling
Thinner areas and materials of a less density
show as darker areas on the radiograph
Thicker areas and materials of a greater
density show as lighter areas on a radiograph
Applicable to metals,non-metals and
composites
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Industrial Radiography

X - Rays Gamma Rays

Electrically generated Generated by the decay
of unstable atoms

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 Radiographic Inspection

Source

Radiation beam Image quality indicator

10fe16

Radiographic film Test specimen

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 Measuring Radiation
WAVELENGTH: New: Nanometers (nm) 1nm = 10-9
Old: Angstroms (Å) 1Å = 10-10 m

RADIATION EXPOSURE: New: Coulomb/kilogram (C/kg)

Old: Roentgen

ABSORBED DOSE: New: Gray (Gy)

1 Gy = 1 joule/kilogram
Old: Rad 100 rads = 1 Gy

BIOLOGICAL EFFECT: New: Sievert (Sv)

1 Sv = 1 joule/kilogram
Old: Rem 100 rems = 1 Sv
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Prefixes Definition Symbol
1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo K
102 Hecto h
10 Deca da
10-1 Deci d
10-2 Centi c
10-3 Milli m
10-6 Micro µ
10-9 Nano n
23 Sep 02
10-12 pico p M.S.Rogers
 Radiographic Quality
 Density - relates to the degree of darkness

 Contrast - relates to the degree of difference

 Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness

 Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the

radiograph

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 Inverse Square Law

D1
I1 D2 2
=
I1 I2 D1 2

D2

I2

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Example: 1 An x-ray tube emits 40 msv/h of
radiation at an auto-monitored
distance of 1m. What is the
distance where safety barriers are
to be erected at 7.5 sv/h?

Example: 2 An emergency is when an

unshielded isotope emits 6.4 sv/h
at the barriers at 45m distance.
What will be the exposure at 1m?

Example: 3 Determine the intensity of radiation

at a distance of 1m if a survey
meter reveals 0.02 mr/h at 35m.

Example: 4 The intensity of radiation on a

survey meter is 333sv/h at 15m.
What distance is between the
meter and radiation source if the
meter shows 75 msv/h?
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Inverse Square Law Answers
Question 1 I1 = 40 msv/h (X 1000) D1 = 1m
I2 = 7.5µsv/h D2 = ?

D2 = I 1 X D12 D2 = 40000 X 12
I2 7 .5
Answer D2 = 73m
Question 2 I1 = 6.4 µsv/h D1 = 45m
I2 = ? D2 = 1m
I2 = D12 X I1
2
I2 = 45 2
X 6.4
D2 12
Answer I2 = 12960µsv/h
Question 3 I1 = ? D1 = 1m
I2 = 0.02 mr/h D2 = 35m
I 1 = D2 2 X I2 I1 = 352 X 0.02
2 2

D1 1
Answer I1 = 24.5 mr/h
Question 4 I1 = 333 µsv/h D1 = 15m
I2 = 75 msv/h (X 1000) D2 = ?

D2 = I1 X D12 D2 = 333 X 15
I2 75000
Answer D2 = 0.999 m
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 What is radiation?
• Waves of energy associated with
electrical and magnetic fields
• Electrical and magnetic fields at right
angles to each other and to the direction
of propagation

Electromagnetic Radiation
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 Advantages of Radiography
• Permanent record

• Internal flaws

• Can be used on most materials

• Direct image of flaws

• Real - time imaging

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Disadvantages of Radiography

• Health hazard
• Sensitive to defect orientation
• Access to both sides required
• Limited by material thickness
• Skilled interpretation required
• Relatively slow
• High capital outlay and running costs
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Duties of a radiographic interpreter
 Mask of any unwanted light from viewer
 Ensure the background light is subdued
 Check the radiograph for correct identification
 Assess the radiographs density
 Calculate the radiographs sensitivity
 Check the radiograph for any artifacts
 Assess the radiograph for any defects present
 State the action to be taken, acceptable,
rejectable or repair
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Properties of x-ray and gamma rays

 They have no effect on the human sense

 They have adverse effects on the body

 They penetrate matter

 They travel at the speed of light

 They obey the inverse square law

 They may be scattered

 They affect photographic emulsion

 They may be refracted and diffracted

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 Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy

Shortening Wavelength
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 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Industrial
radiography
Electric
Microwaves Waves
Ultra
Infra red TV
violet

10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1cm 102 104 106 108

Wavelength
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 Ionization

Electrons Oxygen atom

Protons & Neutrons 8+ 8 +ve protons
8 -ve electrons
no overall charge

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Ionization

Electrons Oxygen atom

Protons & Neutrons 8+ 8 +ve protons
8 -ve electrons
no overall charge
Ionising Radiation

8 +ve protons
7 -ve electrons
1 +ve charge
8+

Negative oxygen ion

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Ionization

Electrons Oxygen atom

Protons & Neutrons 8+ 8 +ve protons
8 -ve electrons
no overall charge
Ionising Radiation

Displaced electron

8 +ve protons
7 -ve electrons
1 +ve charge 8+

8+
8 +ve protons
9 -ve electrons
1 -ve charge
Negative oxygen ion
Negative oxygen ion
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 Atomic structure
N SHELL

M SHELL

L SHELL

K SHELL

Proton + ve charge

Neutron no charge

Electron –ve charge

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 Radiography

X-ray production

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 X-Ray Production

• X-rays are produced when

electrons strike a positively charged
nucleus
• The kinetic energy of the electrons
is converted into electromagnetic
radiation (X-rays)

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 X-Ray Tube (Evacuated Glass Bulb)
(97-99% heat)
(1-3% X-ray)
Tungsten Target (70o)
Focussing cup Filament

Cathode - ve Anode + ve

Electron Stream
Milliamps
X-ray beam
Intensity
Homogeneous
(Quantity)
wavelength
Kilovolts wavelength (Quality)

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 The Effects of Kilo Volts
KV’s Increased KV’s Reduced

Electron Flow Increases Electron Flow Reduces

Wave Length Shortens Wave Length Increases

Increase In Penetration Reduction In Penetration

Reduction In Contrast Increase In Contrast

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 The Conservation of Energy
The law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
although it is possible to change it to one form to another.
In the case of x-rays a stream of quickly moving particles (usually
electrons) strike a target material (usually tungsten) and are brought
to a rapid halt. A portion of this energy is give off as packets of
electromagnetic radiation called photons. The photons can vary in
energy which is determined by

1. The original energy of the electrons.

2. How rapid the electrons are decelerated.

3. The atomic number of the target material.

This process is known as bremsstrahlung

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 A.C. Circuit

The effect of a.c. on the direction of current

flow.
In an x-ray tube x-rays can only be
produced when the current is travelling
from the cathode (-ve) to the anode (+ve).
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Half Wave rectified Circuit

In the half wave rectified circuit the anode

is only positive every half cycle, therefore
the electrons will only flow from the
filament during that time. The x-rays are
only produced during the positive half
23 Sep 02
cycle. M.S.Rogers
 Constant Potential Circuit

The introduction of separate rectifiers into

the circuit, produces a constant electron
flow from the cathode to anode and
therefore a relatively constant output of x-
rays. This circuit is know as a Greinacher
23 Sep 02
circuit. M.S.Rogers
 X-Ray Set Circuits
Constant Potential Half Wave Rectified
Advantages Advantages
•High output/unit time •More commonly used on site
•100% duty cycle •More robust
•Shorter exposure times •Portable/lighter
Disdavantages Disdavantages
•Bulky equipment •Low output/unit time
•Expensive •Longer exposure times
•Low duty cycle 50%
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Determination of focal spot size

X- RAY TUBE

FOCAL SPOT 250 mm

LEAD SHEET ~ 4 mm W.T.

0.25 mm Dia HOLE
FOCAL SPOT SIZE
DETERMINED BY 250 mm
Image Dimension - (2 X Hole Size)
4 mm - (2 X 0.25) = 3.5 mm
FILM AND CASSETTE

LARGEST IMAGE DEVELOPED FILM

DIMENSION e.g. 4mm

Measurement of the longest linear dimension of the image

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Radiography

Gamma ray production

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Atomic structure
ELECTRONS: -Ve Charge

NEUTRONS: No Charge

PROTONS: +Ve Charge

Example of a Helium Atom

Atomic number: 2
Atomic mass number: 4
The atom carries no overall charge.
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Atomic Structure

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)

The number of protons this dictates the element
type.

ATOMIC MASS NUMBER (A)

The number of protons + neutrons, this can be
altered in order to make artificial isotopes.

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Radioactive Isotopes

Some isotopes are stable others are not

Unstable isotopes transform into another
element and in so doing emit radiation in
3 forms
 Alpha (particles)
 Beta (particles)
 Gamma (rays)

23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Isotopes Specific Activity
ALPHA PARTICLES
2 NEUTRONS AND 2 PROTONS
VERY LOW PENETRATING
ISOTOPE

RADIOACTIVE AREAS
THE GREATER THE
AMOUNT THE GREATER
THE SPECIFIC ACTIVITY

NEUTRONS
THERMAL & FAST
BETA PARTICLES
EJECTED AS ELECTRONS
-Ve CHARGE GAMMA RAYS
EMMITTED AFTER BETA
OR ALPHA PARTICLES.
Photons of energy they are
23 Sep 02 not particles. M.S.Rogers
 Rate of Decay
• Curie 3.7 x 1010 disintegration / second
• Becquerel 1 disintegration / second
• 1 Curie = 37 Gbq
• Half Life Time taken for the activity of
an isotope to reduce by a half
• Cobalt 60 5.3 years
• Iridium 192 74 days
• Ytterbium 169 32 days
• Selenium 75 120 days
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 Wavelengths
Intensity Mev.

Co 60
1.17 to1.3 Mev
Relative

Ir 192
0.3 to 0.47 Mev
Yb 169
0.06 to 0.2 Mev

Long Wavelength  Short

Gamma line spectrum (discrete energies), the wave

length is not of a fixed nature. A number of frequencies
will be emitted for most sources.
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
 ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING
 Rayleigh scattering  Photoelectric effect
Occurs at very low energies Occurs at low energies
In this process, photons are The complete absorption of a
photon of energy by an atom with
deflected by outer electrons
the emission of an electron
with no change in energy
 Pair production
 Compton effect
Occurs at very high energies
Occurs at higher energies The simultaneous formation of an
The interaction of a photon of positron (+ve electron) and a
energy by an electron resulting electron as a result of the
in the ejection of an electron interaction of a photon with the
from its atom with a certain nucleus of the atom. The particles
amount of energy. The are soon afterwards destroyed
thus creating photons this is
remaining energy is scattered
known as
this is known as COMPTON
Annihilation
SCATTER
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers