05BC1302 - Database Management

System – 2 (DBMS-2)

BCA Semester - 3
 Flash Back

• SQL – Structured Query Language

• SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer

language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data stored in
a relational database.

• SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System.

• All the Relational Database Management Systems (RDMS) like

MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres and
SQL Server use SQL as their standard database language.

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 SQL – Structured Query Language

• SQL is widely popular because it offers the following advantages −

• Allows users to access data in the relational database management
systems.
• Allows users to describe the data.
• Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that
data.
• Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries
& pre-compilers.
• Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
• Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a
database.
• Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

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 SQL Commands

• The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are CREATE,
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and DROP.
• These commands can be classified into the following groups based on their
nature −
• DDL - Data Definition Language
Sr.N Command & Description
o.
1 CREATE
Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in the database.
ALTER
2
Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.
DROP
3
Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other objects in the database.

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SQL Commands - Example

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SQL Commands - Example

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SQL Commands - Example

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 SQL Commands

• DML - Data Manipulation Language

Sr.No. Command & Description

SELECT
1 Retrieves certain records from one or more tables.

INSERT
2 Creates a record.

UPDATE
3 Modifies records.

DELETE
4 Deletes records.

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SQL Commands - Example

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SQL Commands - Example

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SQL Commands - Example

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SQL Commands - Example

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SQL Commands - Example

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 SQL Commands

• DCL - Data Control Language

Sr.N Command & Description

o.
GRANT
1 Gives a privilege to user.

2 REVOKE
Takes back privileges granted from user.

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SQL Commands - Example

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 SQL Commands - Example

• REVOKE COMMAND: -
• As you would expect, the REVOKE statement is the opposite of the GRANT statement.
Either system privileges or object privileges can be
• revoked with the following basic syntax:

• Syntax: -
• REVOKE obj_privilege | ALL [, obj_privilege] ON object
• FROM user | role | PUBLIC [, user | role | PUBLIC...];
• REVOKE sys_privilege | ALL [, sys_privilege...]
• FROM user | role | PUBLIC [, user | role | PUBLIC...];

• Example: -
• REVOKE CONNECT FROM BCA;
• REVOKE REOSOURCE FROM BCA;
• REVOKE DBA FROM MCA;

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 SQL Commands

• TCL – Transaction Control Language

• Transaction is a sequence of SQL statements that Oracle treats as a single
block of unit. To save a set of changes made to a table using DML
commands and to get back to the original state before changes have been
made we use TCL.

• Commands available in DCL are as follows:

• 1. COMMIT
• 2. ROLLBACK
• 3. SAVEPOINT

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 SQL Commands - Example

• COMMIT COMMAND: -
• A set of changes made to a table using DML (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE)
commands are temporary. To make the changes permanent, COMMIT
command must be needed after DML commands.
• Syntax: -
• COMMIT;
• Example: -
• DELETE FROM EMP WHERE NO=500;
COMMIT;

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 SQL Commands - Example

• ROLLBACK COMMAND: -
• The ROLLBACK statement allows you to change your mind about a
transaction. It brings back the original state of the tables to the state as of
the last COMMIT statement or the beginning of the current transaction.
• Syntax: -
• ROLLBACK [TO SAVEPOINT <Savepoint_Name>];
• Example: -
• DELETE FROM EMP WHERE NO=500;
ROLLBACK;
• NOTE: - You cannot ROLLBACK the transaction after the COMMIT. So, After
the COMMIT you cannot use ROLLBCAK command.

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 SQL Commands - Example

• SAVEPOINT COMMAND: -
• Additionally, you can use SAVEPOINT to further subdivide the DML statements
within a transaction before the final COMMIT of all DML statements within the
transaction. SAVEPOINT essentially allows partial rollbacks within a transaction.

• Syntax: -
• SAVEPOINT <Savepoint_Name>;
• ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT <Savepoint_Name>;
• Example: -
• DELETE FROM EMP WHERE NO=500;
• SAVEPOINT A1;
• ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT A1;

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 DBMS – II

Let’s get started…

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Unit – 1: Fundamentals of PL/SQL

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 Topics
1. Overview
2. Advantages of PL/SQL
3. Generic PL/SQL Block
4. PL/SQL Environment
5. PL/SQL Literals
6. Data Types
7. Variables
8. Display Messages
9. Comments
10. Create and Execute PL/SQL
11. Example of PL/SQL Block
12. Control Structures 23
 Overview

• SQL is so much powerful in handling data and various database

objects.
• But, there is lack some of basic functionalities provided by other
programming language.
• For example, SQL does not provide basic procedural
capabilities such as conditional checking, branching and
looping.
• Oracle provides PL/SQL (Procedural Language / Structured
Query Language) to overcome disadvantages of SQL.
• PL/SQL supports all the functionalities provided by SQL along
with its own procedural capabilities.
• Data definition statements are not allowed because PL/SQL
code is compile time. So, it cannot refer to objects that do not
yet exist.

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 Advantages of PL/SQL

1) Procedural Capabilities

2) Support to variables

3) Error Handling

4) User Defined Functions

5) Portability

6) Sharing of Code

7) Efficient Execution

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 Advantages of PL/SQL
1) Procedural Capabilities
• PL/SQL provides procedural capabilities such as condition checking,
branching and looping.
• This enables programmer to control execution of a program based on
some conditions and user inputs.
2) Support to variables
• PL/SQL supports declaration and use of variables.
• These variables can be used to store intermediate results of a query or
some expression.
3) Error Handling
• When an error occurs, user friendly message can be displayed.
• Execution of program can be controlled instead of abruptly terminating
the program.

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 Advantages of PL/SQL
4) User Defined Functions
• SQL also supports user defined functions and procedures.
5) Portability
• Programs written in PL/SQL are portable.
• It means, programs can be transferred and executed from any other
computer hardware and operating system, where Oracle is operational.
6) Sharing of Code:
• Allows user to store compiled code in database.
• PL/SQL code can be accessed and shared by different applications.
• PL/SQL code can be executed by other programming language like JAVA.

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 Advantages of PL/SQL
7) Efficient Execution
• PL/SQL sends an entire block of SQL statements to the Oracle engine,
where these statements are executed in one go.
• Reduces network traffic and improves efficiency of execution.
• In SQL, all statements are transferred one by one.

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 Generic PL/SQL Block
• PL/SQL code is grouped into structures called block.
• A block is called a named block, if it is given particular name to identify.
• A block is called an anonymous block, if it is not given any name.
• Named blocks are created while creating database objects such as function,
procedure, package and trigger.
DECLARE
<Declaration Section> Optional
BEGIN
<Executable Commands> Mandatory
EXCEPTION
<Exception Handling> Optional
END ; Mandatory

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 Generic PL/SQL Block
1) Declarations (Optional)
• This section starts with the keyword ‘DECLARE’.
• It defines and initializes variables and cursors used in the block.
2) Begin (Executable Commands) (Mandatory)
• This section starts with the keyword ‘BEGIN’.
• It contains various SQL and PL/SQL statements providing functionalities like
data retrieval, manipulation, looping and branching.
3) Exception Handling (Optional)
• This section starts with the keyword ‘EXCEPTION’.
• It handles errors that arise during the execution of data manipulation
statements in ‘executable commands’ section.

4) End (Mandatory)
• This section specifies that end of PL / SQL block.
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PL/SQL Environment

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 PL/SQL Environment

• PL / SQL Execution Environment

• The PL/SQL engine accepts as input any valid PL/SQL unit. The engine runs
procedural statements, but sends SQL statements to the SQL engine in the
database, as shown in the figure above.
• Typically, the database processes PL/SQL units. When an application
development tool processes PL/SQL units, it passes them to its local PL/SQL
engine.
• If a PL/SQL unit contains no SQL statements, the local engine processes the
entire PL/SQL unit.
• This is useful if the application development tool can benefit from
conditional and iterative control.

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 The PL/SQL Literals

• A literal is an explicit numeric, character, string, or Boolean value not

represented by an identifier.
• For example, TRUE, 786, NULL, ‘marwadi university' are all literals of type
Boolean, number, or string.
• PL/SQL, literals are case-sensitive. PL/SQL supports the following kinds of
literals −
• Numeric Literals
• Character Literals
• String Literals
• BOOLEAN Literals
• Date and Time Literals

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 The PL/SQL Literals

• Numeric Literals:
• 25 6.34 7g2 .1 +17 -5
• 050 78 -14 0 +32767
• 6.6667 0.0 -12.0 3.14159 +7800.00

• Character Literals
• 'A' '%' ‘*’ 'z' '('

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 The PL/SQL Literals

• String Literals
• 'Hello, world!'
• ‘Marwadi Univerisity'
• '19-NOV-12'

• BOOLEAN Literals
• TRUE, FALSE, and NULL.

• Date and Time Literals

• DATE ‘25-DEC-78';
• TIMESTAMP '2012-10-29 12:01:01';

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 Data Types

• PL/SQL is super set of the SQL.

• So, it supports all the data types provided by SQL.
• In PL/SQL Oracle provides subtypes of the data types.
• For example, the data type NUMBER has a subtype called INTEGER.

Category Data Type Sub types/values

Numerical NUMBER BINARY_INTEGER, DEC, DECIMAL, DOUBLE
PRECISION, FLOAT, INTEGER, INT, NATURAL,
POSITIVE, REAL, SMALLINT
Character CHAR,LONG, VARCHAR2 CHARACTER, VARCHAR, STRING, NCHAR,
NVARCHAR2
Date DATE -

Binary RAW, LONG RAW -

Boolean BOOLEAN Can have value like TRUE, FALSE and NULL
RowID ROWID Stores values of address of each record

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Variables
• Variables are used to store values that
may be change during the execution of
program.
• In PL/SQL, variables contain values
resulting from queries or expression.
• Variables are declared in Declaration
section of the PL/SQL block.
• It can assign valid data type and can
also be initialized if necessary.

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 Variables
Declare a Variable
Syntax:
variableName datatype [ NOT NULL] := initialValue;

• datatype can be any valid data type supported by PL/SQL.

• ‘:= ‘ used as assignment operator.
• If variable need to be initialized then initialValue can be assigned at
declaration time.
• If NOT NULL is included in declaration, variable cannot have NULL value during
program execution and such variable must be initialized.

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 Variables
Example:
no NUMBER(3);
value DECIMAL;
city CHAR(10);
name VARCHAR(10);
counter NUMBER(2) NOTNULL := 0

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 Variables
Anchored Data Type
• A variable can be declared as anchored data type. It means, datatype for
variable is determined based on the data type of the other object.
• This object can be other variable or a column of the table.
• This provides ability to match the data types of the variables with the data
types of the columns defined in the database.
• If data type of column is changed, then the data type of variable will also
changed automatically.
Advantage: It reduces maintenance cost and allow a program to adapt
changes made in tables.

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 Variables
Anchored Data Type
Syntax:
variableName object%TYPE [ NOTNULL] := initialValue ;
• object can be any variable declared previously or column of a database.
• To refer of a column of particular table, column name must be combined
with table name.
Example
no Account.Acc_No%TYPE := 101;
bal Account.Balance%TYPE;
name Customer.name%TYPE;

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 Variables
Declare a Constant
• A constant is also used to store value like a variable.
• But, unlike variable, a value stored in constant cannot be changed during
program execution.
• A constant must be initialized at declaration time.
Syntax:
constantName CONSTANT datatype := initialValue ;
Example
pi CONSTANT NUMBER(3,2) := 3.14 ;

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 Variables
Assign Value to Variable
1) By using Assignment Operator
Syntax:
variableName := value ;
o A value can be a constant value or result of some expression or return
value of some function.
2) By Reading from the Keyword:
Syntax:
variableName := &variableName ;
o This is similar to scanf() function.
o Whenever ‘&’ is encountered, a value read from the keyboard and assign
it to variable.
no := &no;

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 Variables
Assign Value to Variable
3) Selecting or Fetching table data values into Variables:
Syntax:
SELECT col1, col2, …, colN INTO var1, var2, …, varN FROM
tableName WHERE condition ;
oThis statement retrieves values for specified column and stores them
in given variable.
oData type and size of variables must be compatible with the relative
columns.
oA condition in WHERE clause must be such that it selects only single
record.
oThis statement cannot work if multiple records are selected.

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 Variables
Assign Value to Variable
3) Selecting or Fetching table data values into Variables:
Example: Write PL/SQL block stores account number and balance for account
‘A01’ into variable ‘no’ and ‘bal’.
Input:
DECLARE
no Account.Acc_No%TYPE;
bal Account.Balance%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT Acc_No, Balance INTO no, bal FROM Account
WHERE Acc_No = ‘A01’ ;
END;
/

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 Display Messages
Syntax:
dbms_output.put_line ( message );
• A dbms_output is a package, which provides functions to accumulate
information in a buffer.
• A put_line is a function, which display messages on the screen.
• A message is a character string to be displayed.
• To display data of other data type, they must be concatenated with some
character string.
• The environment parameter, SERVEROUTPUT must be ON to display
messages on screen.
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;

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 Display Messages

Example:
dbms_output.put_line ( ‘Hi Hello World…’ );
Hi Hello World… Concatenation Operator
dbms_output.put_line ( ‘Sum =’ || 25 );
Sum = 25
dbms_output.put_line ( ‘Square of ‘ || 3 || ‘ is ’ || 9 );
Square of 3 is 9

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 Comments
• Comments are statement that will not get executed even though they are
present in the program code.
• Comments are used to increase readability of a program.
• There are two types of comments:
1) -- (Double hyphen or double dash) (Single Line Comment):
oTreats single line as a comment.
-- This single line is a comment
2) /* …. */ (Multiple Line Comment):
oTreats multiple lines as comment.
/* This statement is spread over two line and both lines are treated
as comments */

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 Create and Execute PL/SQL Block
• An EDIT command can be used on SQL prompt to open a notepad from
the SQL * PLUS environment.
• The following syntax creates and opens a file:
EDIT filename
Example:
EDIT D:/PLSQL/test.sql
• Create and open a file named ‘test.sql’.
• Write a program code or statements in a file and save it.
• File should have ‘.sql’ extension and last statement in file should be ‘/’.
• To execute this block:
RUN filename OR
START fileName OR @ D:/PLSQL/test.sql
@ fileName

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 Example of PL/SQL Block
• Write a program to calculate the AREA and store that value in the table AREAS (RADIUS NUMBER (5),
AREA NUMBER (14,2)).
 
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
PI CONSTANT NUMBER (9,7): =3.1415927;
RADIUS NUMBER (5);
AREA NUMBER (14,2);
 
BEGIN
RADIUS: = 3;
AREA: = PI * POWER (RADIUS, 2);
 
INSERT INTO AREAS VALUES (RADIUS, AREA);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('AREA IS-' || AREA);
END;
/
SET SERVEROUTPUT OFF
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 Control Structures
• There are 3 types of Control Structures in PL/SQL:
1) Conditional Control
2) Iterative Control
3) Sequential Control

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 Control Structures
1) Conditional Control
• To control the execution of block of code based on some condition,
PL/SQL provides the IF statement.
• The IF – THEN – ELSIF – ELSE – END IF construct can be used to execute
specific part of the block based on the condition provided.
Syntax:
IF condition THEN
-- Execute commands
ELSIF condition THEN
-- Execute command . .
ELSE
-- Execute command
END IF;

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 Control Structures
1)Conditional Control
Example: Write a program to read a number from user and determine
whether it is odd or even. Enter value for no: 7
Input: Old 5: no := &no;
DECLARE New 5: no := 7;
no NUMBER; Given Number 7 is ODD.
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line ( ‘Enter value for no: ’ );
no := &no;
IF MOD (no, 2) = 0 THEN
dbms_output.put_line ( ‘Given Number ’|| no || ‘ is EVEN.’ );
ELSE
dbms_output.put_line ( ‘Given Number ’|| no || ‘ is ODD.’ );
END IF ;
END ;
/
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 Control Structures
1) Conditional Control
Example: Write a program to debit a given account. Read account number and
amount to be debited. Debit the balance if the resulting balance is not
less than zero. This means, a balance in account should not go to
negative while withdrawing amount .

Do It Yourself

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 Control Structures
2) Iterative Control
• Iterative control allows a group of statements to execute repeatedly in a
program. It is called Looping.
• PL/SQL provides three constructs to implement loops, as listed below:
1. LOOP
2. WHILE
3. FOR
• In PL/SQL, any loop starts with a LOOP keyword and it terminates with an
END LOOP keyword.
• Each loop requires a conditional statement to control the number of times
a loop is executed.

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 Control Structures
2) Iterative Control
1. LOOP
Syntax:
LOOP
-- Execute commands..
END LOOP;
oLOOP is an infinite loop. It executes commands in its body infinite
times.
oSo, it requires an EXIT statement within its body to terminate the loop
after executing specific iteration.

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 Control Structures
2) Iterative Control
1. LOOP
Example: Display number from 1 to 5 along with their square values
using LOOP construct. Value Square
Output:
Input: 1 1
2 4
DECLARE
3 9
counter NUMBER(3) := 1 ; 4 16
BEGIN 5 25
LOOP
output dbms_output.put_line (‘Value ’ || ‘ Square’);
EXIT WHEN counter > 5;
dbms_output.put_line ( ‘’||counter || ‘ ’ ||
counter*counter);
counter := counter + 1;
END LOOP;
END ;
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/
 Control Structures
Control Structures
2) Iterative Control
2. WHILE
Syntax:
WHILE Condition
LOOP
-- Execute Commands..
END LOOP;
• The WHILE loop executes commands in its body as long as the condition
remains TRUE.
• The loop terminates when the condition evaluates to FALSE or NULL.
• The EXIT statement can also be used to exit the loop.

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 Control Structures
2) Iterative Control
2. WHILE
Example: Display numbers from 1 to 5 along with their square values
using WHILE construct. Value Square
Output:
Input: 1 1
DECLARE 2 4
counter NUMBER(3) := 1; 3 9
BEGIN 4 16
dbms_output.put_line (‘ Value ’ || ‘ Square’); 5 25
WHILE counter <= 5
LOOP
dbms_output.put_line ( ‘ ’ ||counter|| ‘ ’ ||
counter * counter);
counter := counter + 1;
END LOOP;
END;
/
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 Control Structures
2) Iterative Control
3. FOR
Syntax:
FOR variable IN [ REVERSE ] start .. end
LOOP
-- Execute command
END LOOP;
o Here, a variable is a loop control variable. It is declared implicitly by
PL/SQL.
o The FOR LOOP variable is always incremented by 1 and any other
increment value cannot be specified.
o A start and end specifies the lower and upper bound for the loop control
variable.
o If REVERSE keyword is provided, loop is executed in reverse order.
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 Control Structures
2) Iterative Control
3. FOR
Example: Display numbers from 1 to 5 along with their square values
using FOR construct.
Input: Output: Value Square
DECLARE 1 1
counter NUMBER(3) := 1; 2 4
BEGIN 3 9
dbms_output.put_line (‘ Value ’ || ‘ Square’); 4 16
FOR counter IN 1 .. 5 5 25
LOOP
dbms_output.put_line ( ‘ ’ || counter || ‘ ’ ||
counter * counter); END LOOP;
END;
/

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 Control Structures

3) Sequential Control
• Normally, execution proceeds sequentially within the block of code.
• Sequence can be changed conditionally as well as unconditionally.
• To alter the sequence unconditionally, the GOTO statement can be used.
Syntax:
GOTO jumpHere ;
:
:
<< jumpHere >>
o The GOTO statement makes flow of execution to jump at << jumpHere >>.

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 Control Structures

3) Sequential Control
Example: The following code illustrates the use of the GOTO statement.
Input:
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line (‘Code Starts.’);
dbms_output.put_line (‘Before GOTO statement..’);
GOTO jump;
dbms_output.put_line (‘This statement will not get
executed..’);
<< jump >>
dbms_output.put_line (‘Flow of execution jumped here..’);
END; Output: Code Starts.
/ Before GOTO Statement..
Flow of execution jumped here..
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