COMPUTER

FUNDAMENTALS

-Karishma Verma
Institute of Hotel Management,
Bangalore
 DEFINITION OF
COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that operates under the control of a set
of instructions that is stored in its memory unit.
It is a collection of hardware and software components that help you
complete many different tasks.
A computer can be more accurately defined as an electronic device that
takes data as input, stores, and processes it, and displays the output
according to the given instructions.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER

1. Speed
2. Reliability
3. Multitasking
4. Diligence
5. Accuracy
6. Memory capacity
CLASSIFICATION OF
COMPUTERS
On The Basis Of Purpose

1. General Purpose Computers: These are designed to perform a

range of tasks. They have the ability to store numerous programs, but
lack in speed and efficiency comparatively.

2. Special Purpose Computers: Specific purpose computers are

designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a specific task. A set
of instructions is built into the machine.
On The Basis Of Size
1. Microcomputers
• Microcomputers are connected to networks of other computers.
• Microcomputers make up the vast majority of computers.
• A single user can interact with this computer at a time.

2. Mini Computer
• Mini Computer is a small and general-purpose computer.
• It is more expensive than a microcomputer.
• It has more storage capacity and speed.
• It designed to simultaneously handle the needs of multiple
3. Mainframe Computer
• Large computers are called Mainframes.
• Mainframe computers process data at very high rates of speed,
measured in the millions of instructions per second.
• They are very expensive than the microcomputer and minicomputers.
• Mainframes are designed for multiple users and process vast amounts
of data quickly
4. Super Computers
• The largest computers are Super Computers.
• They are the most powerful, the most expensive, and the fastest.
• They are capable of processing trillions of instructions per second.
On The Basis Of Functionality/ Data
Handling

1. Analog Computers
• An Analog Computer is a form of computer that uses continuous
physical phenomena such as electrical, hydraulic, or mechanical
quantities to model the problem being solved.
• They work on the principles of measuring in which the measurements
obtained are translated into data.
• Modern Analog Computers usually employ electrical parameters such
as voltages, resistances or currents to represent the quantities being
manipulated.
• They measure continuous physical magnitudes.
2. Digital Computers
• A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with
quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number system.
• They process data into a digital values of only (0s and 1s).
• They give results with more accuracy at a faster rate.
3. Hybrid Computers
• A combination of computers, those who are capable of inputting and
outputting in both digital and analog signals.
• A Hybrid computer system set up offers a cost-effective method of
performing complex simulations.
• They incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and
counting feature of a digital computer.
• For computational purposes, these computers use analog components
and store digital memories are used.
 LIMITATIONS OF A
COMPUTER
• No Self-Intelligence
• No Thinking and Decision-Making Power
• No Feeling
• No Learning Power
 DATA PROCESSING
CONCEPT
The cycle of activities performed by a computer is referred to as the Input-
Process-Output cycle or the I-P-O cycle. A computer consists of several
components. Each component participates in either one of the Inputs,
Process, or Output phases.
DATA
A computer usually accepts input in the form of data. Data is the raw
material. Data refers to numerical (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0), alphabetical
(A,B,C,D ……Z) and special characters (e.g., @,#,$,%,^,&,!). A set
of numbers could be examples of data. OR Data is a word of Latin
used to describe a collection of natural phenomena like numbers,
characters, images, or symbols, in a very broad sense.
INFORMATION
Information is the finished product (manipulation of raw facts).
Information refers to data in a particular context, which helps us
understand facts. Example- +91(011) 2555-1212 is a telephone no. of
a directory. It includes country code 91, an area code 011, a
telephone exchange 2555, and a number within the exchange 1212.
 COMPONENTS OF A
COMPUTER
A computer system consists of both hardware and information stored
on the hardware. Information stored on computer hardware is often
called software.
The hardware components of a computer system are the electronic
and mechanical parts.
The software components of a computer system are the data and
computer programs.
 INPUT UNIT
The input unit is used for transfer of raw Data and control signals into the
information processing system by the user before processing and
computation.
All the input unit devices provide the instructions and data are transformed
into binary codes that are in the primary memory acceptable format.
Example of Input unit devices: keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick, MICR,
Punched cards, Punched paper tape, Magnetic tape, etc.
KEYBOARD
This is the standard input device attached to all computers.
The layout of the keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of
the type QWERTY.
It also contains some extra command keys and function keys. It
contains a total of 101 to 104 keys.
A typical keyboard used in a computer you have to press the correct
combination of keys to input data.
The computer can recognize the electrical signals corresponding to
the correct key combination and processing is done accordingly.
MOUSE
The mouse is an input device that is used with your personal computer.
When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the
mouse in the direction of mouse movement. It is easier and faster to move
through a mouse Types of Mouse:
• Trackball Mouse: In this, the ball is rolled at one place rolling the
mouse on the tabletop.
• Optical Mouse: It uses a light beam to detect movement.
• Wireless Mouse: It is a mouse without a cable. This mouse works up to
one and a half meters away from the computer.
• Light Pen Mouse: It uses a light-sensitive detector, requiring you to
hold a pen and point it at the screen.
• Joystick Mouse: It usually includes two upright sticks which are moved
with the hand and the button is pressed on either stick.
SCANNER
The scanner is an optical device that can input any graphical matter
and display it back. The common optical scanner devices are:
• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): This is widely
used by banks to process large volumes of cheques and drafts.
Cheques are put inside the MICR. As they enter the reading unit the
cheques pass through the magnetic field which causes the read head
to recognize the character of the cheques.
• Optical Mark Reader (OMR): This technique is used when
students have appeared in objective type tests and they had to mark
their answer by darkening a square or circular space by pencil. These
answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for grading where OMR
is used.
• Barcode Reader (BCR): A barcode reader is an electronic device for
reading printed barcodes. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light source,
a lens and a light sensor translating optical impulses into electrical ones.
Additionally, nearly all barcode readers contain decoder circuitry analyzing
the barcode’s image data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode’s
content to the scanner’s output port.
• Optical Character Recognition (OCR): This technique unites the direct
reading of any printed character. Suppose you have a set of handwritten
characters on a piece of paper. You put it inside the scanner of the computer.
This pattern is compared with a site of patterns stored inside the computer.
Whichever pattern is matched is called a character read. Patterns that cannot
be identified are rejected. OCRs are expensive though better the MICR.
 MEMORY OR STORAGE
UNIT
Memory or Storage unit is used for storing Data during before and after
processing. The capacity of storage is expressed in terms of Bytes.
The two terms Memory or Storage unit are used interchangeably, so it is
important to understand what is the difference between memory and storage?
• Memory: This unit retains temporary results until further processing, For
example, Random Access Memory (RAM). This memory is volatile, which
means data disappear when the power is lost.
• Storage: The storage or “secondary storage” is used to retain digital data
after processing for permanently. For example, hard drive. The Storage is
non-volatile in nature. CPU does not access directly to secondary storage
memories, instead, they accessed via the input-output unit. The contents of
secondary storage memories are first transferred to the main memory (RAM)
and then CPU access it.
OUTPUT UNIT
The output unit receives information from the CPU and then delivers
it to the external storage or device in the soft or hard processed form.
The devices which are used to display output to the user are called
output devices. The Monitor or printer is a common output device.
VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT
(VDU)
VDU is also called the monitor. A monitor has its own box which is
separated from the main computer system and is connected to the
computer by cable. In some systems, it is compact with the system unit.
It can be colour or monochrome. Currently, there are two types of visual
display units (VDU) available.
• CRT – Cathode Ray Tube, which comes in monochrome, soft white,
and color forms. These are normally used with Desktop computers.
• LCD – Liquid Crystal Display, also in soft white and colour. These are
sleek and mostly used in portable computers, viz. palm-tops, and laptops.
On the same lines, there are LCD overhead projectors, which when
interfaced with the computer the output could be projected on to a screen
in a larger form for convenient viewing in meetings, demonstrations, and
presentations.
 PRINTERS
There are different types of printers that are designed for different types of
applications. The world’s first computer printer was a 19th-century
mechanically driven apparatus invented by Charles Babbage for his
Difference Engine.
• Non-impact printers: In these printers, the print head does not
physically touch the paper; but makes impression on the paper by different
techniques viz. heat, light and liquid. All these are versatile, high-speed
letter-quality printers that work almost silently. Monochrome, colour, and
photo printers.
• Toner-based printers: Laser printers refer to the method used to adhere
toner to the media. The advent of cost-effective, precision lasers has made
them the dominant toner-based monochrome printer type for home and
office applications. Another toner-based printer is the LED printer which
uses an array of LEDs instead of a laser to cause toner adhesion.
• Inkjet printers: Inkjet printers spray very small, precise amounts of ink
onto the media.. The dots formed are the size of tiny pixels. Ink-jet printers
can print high-quality text and graphics. They are also almost silent in
operation. They are cheaper than laser printers but are expensive to run as
their cartridges need to be frequently replaced.
• Impact printers: These printers physically touch the paper and make the
impression on it; hence these are called impact printers. These are very noisy
printers. Impact printers rely on a forcible impact to transfer ink to the media,
similar to typewriters, that are typically limited to reproducing text.
• Dot-matrix printers: The term dot matrix printer is specifically used for
impact printers that use a matrix of small pins to create precise dots. The
advantage of dot-matrix over other impact printers is that they can produce
graphical images in addition to text; however, the text is generally of poorer
quality than impact printers. Such printers would have either 9 or 24 pins on
the print head. 24 pin print heads were able to print at a higher quality.
• Line printers: Line printers print an entire line of text at a time. To print a
line, precisely timed hammers to strike against the back of the paper at the
exact moment that the correct character to be printed is passing in front of the
paper. The paper presses forward against a ribbon which then presses against
the character form and the impression of the character form is printed onto the
paper. These printers were the fastest of all impact printers and were used for
bulk printing in large computer centres. They were virtually never used with
personal computers and have now been partly replaced by high-speed laser
printers.
 CENTRAL PROCESSING
UNIT (CPU)
The CPU is a microprocessor chip, mounted on a printed circuit board
called the mainboard or motherboard.
This chip is considered to be the controlling chip of a computer system
since it controls the activities of other chips as well as outside devices
connected to the computer, such as to monitor and printer.
The various activities that a microprocessor performs, such as storing
data, doing arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, etc.), are the result of instructions given to the CPU in the form
of sequences of 0s and 1s.
The internal structure of a typical CPU consists of circuits which form a
number of registers (the typical number is 16), an arithmetic unit for
carrying out arithmetic operations, a logic unit, and a control unit.
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT
(ALU)
Arithmetic Logical Unit is used for processing data after inputting
data is stored in the primary unit. The major operations of the
Arithmetic Logical Unit are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, logic, and comparison.
CONTROL UNIT (CU)
It is like a supervisor, that checks ordaining operations or check
sequence in which instructions are executed.
GENERATION OF
COMPUTERS
First Generation
• Basic component – Vacuum Tubes 1940-1956
• Processing Speed – Slow & Unreliable Machine
• Heat Generation – Huge amount of Heat generated
• Size – Bulky & Non – Portable Machine
• Instructions – Only Machine Language was used
• User Friendly – Very Difficult to operate
• Cost – Production & Maintenance costs were very High
• Example – ENIAC, UNIVAC, ENIAC = (Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator, UNIVAC = (Universal Automatic Computer)
Second Generation
• Basic component – Transistors & Diodes
• Processing Speed – More reliable than 1st one
• Heat Generation – Less amount of Heat generated
• Size – Reduced size but still Bulky
• Instructions – High-level Language was used (Like COBOL, FORTRAN)
• User Friendly – Easy to operate from 1st one
• Cost – Production & Maintenance costs was < 1st
• Example – IBM 7090, NCR 304

Third Generation
• Basic component –Integrated Circuits 1964-1971
• Processing Speed – More reliable than 1st & 2nd Machine
• Heat Generation – The lesser amount of Heat generated
• Size – Smaller than older computer
• Instructions –Expensive use of High-level Language
• User Friendly – General-purpose Machine used in commercial Application
• Cost – Production & Maintenance costs were Cheaper than the older one •
Example – IBM 360, CDC 7600
Fourth Generation
• Basic component –: Microprocessors 1971-Present
• 8842Thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
• Processing Speed – Most reliable than older computer
• Heat Generation – Virtually no Heat generated
• Size – Smallest in size making them easily portable
• Instructions –Very sophisticated programs & Languages use
• User Friendly –Easiest to operate • Cost – Production & Maintenance costs were
Cheapest than the older one
• Example – IBM 3090, VAX

Fifth Generation
• Fifth Generation – Present and Beyond: (Artificial Intelligence)
• Fifth-generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development.
 PRIMARY & SECONDARY
STORAGE
Primary storage media
1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
• It is the internal storage area of the machine.
• This is the memory that the computer uses for storing the programs and their data
while working on them.
• Data within the RAM can be read or modified, i.e. you can either read from the
RAM or write onto it.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory)
• It is an internal permanent storage memory.
• ROM contains permanently recorded instructions that are vital for starting the
computer.
• One set of instruction in ROM is called the ROM-BIOS
• All machine-level instructions are stored in the ROM.
Secondary storage media
 Compact Disk (CD ROM)
 Floppy Disk
 Cartridge Tape
 Magneto-Optical Disk
 USB drive / Pen Drive
 Memory Stick
 Hard Disk
MEMORY SIZE
1 Nibble = 4 bits
1Byte = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 Bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB
1 Petabyte (PB) = 1024 TB
1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 PB
1 Zettabyte (ZB) = 1024 EB
SOFTWARE CONCEPTS
As you know, the hardware devices need user instructions to
function. A set of instructions that achieve a single outcome are
called program or procedure. Many programs functioning together to
do a task make a software.
For example, a word-processing software enables the user to create,
edit and save documents. A web browser enables the user to view and
share web pages and multimedia files. There are three categories of
software −
System Software
Application Software
Utility Software
 SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software is required to run the hardware parts of the computer and
other application software. System software acts as interface between
hardware and user applications. An interface is needed because hardware
devices or machines and humans speak in different languages.
Based on its function, system software is of three types −
Operating System is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and
their inter-operability to carry out tasks successfully.
Language Processor’s important function is to convert all user instructions
into machine understandable language.
Device Drivers control and monitor functioning of a specific device on
computer. When you attach a new device, you need to install its driver so that
the OS knows how it needs to be managed.
 APPLICATION SOFTWARE
A software that performs a single task and nothing else is
called application software. Application software are very specialized in
their function and approach to solving a problem. So a spreadsheet
software can only do operations with numbers and nothing else. A hospital
management software will manage hospital activities and nothing else.
Here are some commonly used application software −
Word processing
Spreadsheet
Presentation
Database management
Multimedia tools
UTILITY SOFTWARE
Application software that assist system software in doing their work
is called utility software. Thus utility software is actually a cross
between system software and application software. Examples of
utility software include −
Antivirus software
Disk management tools
File management tools
Compression tools
Backup tools
 TYPES OF COMPUTER
LANGUAGES
Basically, there are two main categories of computer languages:-
1] Low Level Languages
Low level languages are the basic computer instructions or better known as
machine codes. They help in operating, syncing and managing all the hardware
and system components of the computer.
Machine Language
This is one of the most basic low level languages. The language was first
developed to interact with the first generation computers. It is written in binary
code or machine code, which means it basically comprises of only two digits – 1
and 0.
Assembly Language
This is the second generation programming language. It is a development on the
machine language, where instead of using only numbers, we use English words,
names, and symbols. It is the most basic computer language necessary for any
processor.
2] High Level Language
The important feature about such high level languages is that they allow the
programmer to write programs for all types of computers and systems. Every
instruction in high level language is converted to machine language for the
computer to comprehend.
 Scripting Languages: These are easier to learn and execute than compiled
languages. Some examples are AppleScript, JavaScript, Pearl etc.
 Object-Oriented Languages: These are high level languages that focus on
the ‘objects’ rather than the ‘actions’. Some examples include Java, C+, C++,
Python, Swift etc.
 Procedural Programming Language: This is a type of programming language
that has well structured steps and complex procedures within its
programming to compose a complete program.
It has a systematic order functions and commands to complete a task or a
program. FORTRAN, ALGOL, BASIC, COBOL are some examples.
COMPILERS
• A compiler is a system program that translates source code (user-written
program) into object code (binary form).
• The whole source code file is compiled in one go and a complete.
• This means that the program can only be executed once the translation is
complete.
• It is 5-25 times faster than an interpreter.
• Ex- C & C++ are most popular compiled language.
 INTERPRETER
Translate the high-level language and execute the instruction before passing
on to the next instruction.
• An Interpreter is a contrast to a compiler, analyses & executes the source
code line- by – line without looking at the entire program.
• First, it translates & executes the first line then it moves to the next line of
the source code & repeats the process.
• It is a slow process.
• It is used in the FORTRAN program.
• Ex- JavaScript & VBScript are interpreted language.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
COMPILER AND
INTERPRETER
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
COMPILER AND
INTERPRETER
Interpreter Compiler

It assembles the whole program

It translates the program line by line
The debugging process is complex as it
The debugging process is easy
generates errors only at the end of the
The object code of the statement compilation
produced by the interpreter is not The object code produced by the
saved
compiler is permanently saved for future
It is a smaller program compared to reference
a compiler. Thus, it occupies lesser It has a higher execution time and
memory space and has a lower
occupies larger memory space
execution time
It is 5-25 times faster than an
It is a slow process
interpreter
It is used in the FORTRAN program
It is used in C language program