COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

AND ARCHITECTURE
 INTRODUCTION
 Just as buildings, each computer has a visible structure,
referred to as its architecture.
 In computer science and engineering computer
architecture is the practical art of selecting and
interconnecting hardware components to create
computers that meet functional, performance and cost
goals and the formal modeling of those systems.
 The functional blocks in a computer are of four types:

1. Central Processing Unit

2. Memory
3. Input Unit
4. Output Unit
DATA FLOW BETWEEN CPU, MEMORY
AND I/O DEVICES
Data Path
Control Signals
Auxilliary Storage
(Backing Storage)
To Supplement main storage

Memory
Output
Input
Unit
Unit

Control Unit ALU

Registers

Processor
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
 The CPU or the microprocessor (or simply processor) is
referred as the brain of a computer system.
 CPU consists of three main subsystems, the Control Unit
(CU), the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and the
Registers.
 Speed of the computer system is defined by the
architecture of the processor being used.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
(CONDT…)
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT
 The ALU contains electronic circuits necessary to
perform arithmetic and logical operations.
 The arithmetic operations are ADD, SUBSTRACT,
MULTIPLY, DIVIDE, etc.
 The logical operations include COMPARE, SHIFT,
ROTATE, AND, OR, etc
 The control unit analyses each instruction in the program
and sends the relevant signals to all other units – ALU,
Memory, Input unit and Output unit
COMMUNICATION INSIDE A
COMPUTER..
 A computer program consists of both instructions and
data. The program is fed into the computer through the
input unit and stored in the memory.
 In order to execute the program, the instructions have to
be fetched from memory one by one.
 This fetching of instructions is done by the control unit.

 After an instruction is fetched, the control unit decodes

the instruction.
 According to the instruction, the control unit issues
control signals to other units.
COMMUNICATION INSIDE A
COMPUTER..
o After an instruction is executed, the result of the
instruction is stored in memory or stored temporarily in
the control unit or ALU, so that this can be used by the
next instruction.
o The results of a program are taken out of the computer
through the output unit.
o The control unit, ALU and registers are collectively
known as Central Processing Unit (CPU)
COMMUNICATION INSIDE A COMPUTER
INTERCONNECTION OF UNITS
 A computer program consists of both instructions and
data.
 The program is fed into the computer through the input
unit and stored in the memory.
 In order to execute the program, the instructions have to
be fetched from memory one by one and store it into
registers (working memory) for processing.
 This fetching of instructions is done by the control unit.
INSTRUCTION CYCLE
 Instruction are fetched and executed by the control unit
one by one. The sequences involved for the fetch of one
instruction and its execution are known as instruction
cycle.
INSTRUCTION CYCLE
INSTRUCTION CYCLE STEPS
INTERCONNECTIONS OF UNITS..
 Set of wires used for interconnection is known as system
bus which carry group of bits (information) in a
controlled manner.
 It is further divided into three logical units, namely the
address bus, the data bus, and the control bus.
SYSTEM BUSES TYPES
 Data Bus: The data bus is used when any unit is sending
data, instruction or command code to some other units.
 Address Bus: The address bus is used when one unit is
sending an address information i.e. location of the data
residing in the memory to another unit.
 CONTROL BUS
 Control Bus: The control bus is responsible for making
CPU, memory and I/O devices work together as a
functional system, carrying signals that report the status
(ready, not ready) of various units.
 The function of a control bus is to determine and instruct
according to the operation type (Read or Write). For
example, if the processor or an I/O device wants to read
or write a value from memory, the control bus will
specify it.
PROCESSING OF INFORMATION
 The bus is common to all the units in the computer.
Before sending some information on the bus, an unit
should verify whether the bus is free or occupied with
some communication started by some other unit.
 CPU is the bus master in a computer which decides who
should control the bus when more than one unit wants
the bus at the same time.
 An unit who needs the bus makes a request to the CPU
and waits sanction. Till the CPU issues sanction, the
requesting unit does not attempt to use the bus.
 INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTERS
UNITS VIA SYSTEM BUS

Input and
Memory
CPU Output(I/O)
Unit
Units

Data Bus
Address Bus
Control Bus

System
Bus
INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTERS
UNITS VIA BUS
 Shows how the system
bus interconnects the
processor, memory and
I/O devices.
 Both processor and
memory units hold a bi-
directional relationship
with the control and data
bus.
INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTERS
UNITS VIA BUS
 In case of an address bus,
the communication with
processor and memory is
unidirectional.
 Processor provides
location of data (stored in
the register) to be fetched
from the memory to the
address bus and the data
carries the required data to
the processor.
INTERCONNECTION OF COMPUTER
UNITS VIA BUS
 I/O devices have a bi-
directional relationship
with the system bus.
REGISTERS
 It is a special temporary storage location within the CPU.
 Registers quickly accept, store and transfer data and instructions that
are being used immediately.
 To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU retrieves it
from main memory and places it onto a register.
 The typical operations that take place in the processing of
instruction are part of the instruction cycle or execution cycle.
 The instruction cycle refers to the retrieval of the instruction from
main memory and its sub sequence at decoding.
 The time it takes to go through the instruction cycle is referred to as
I-time.
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
 ALU performs all the arithmetic and logical functions.
 It performs arithmetic as well as logical functions.

 The speed of the computer system is defined by the

architecture of the processor being used.
CONTROL UNIT
 It is responsible for directing and coordinating most of
the computer system activities.
 It does not execute instructions by itself. It tells other
parts of the computer system what to do.
 It determines the movement of electronic signals
between the main memory and arithmetic logic unit as
well as the control signals between the CPU and
input/output devices.
CONTROL UNIT(CONDT…)
 To complete an event i.e. processing, control unit repeats
a set of four basic operations:
 Fetching is the process of obtaining a program
instruction or data item from the memory
 Decoding is the process of translating the instruction into
commands the computer can execute.
 Executing is the process of carrying out the commands.

 Storing is the process of writing the result to memory.

CONTROL UNIT(CONDT…)
 The internal communication inside a computer that transforms
raw data into useful information is called processing.
 To perform this transformation, the computer uses two
components- processor and memory
 The program is fed into the computer through the input unit
and stored in the memory
 To execute the program, the instructions have to be fetched
from memory one by one which is done by control unit
 Then the control unit decodes the instruction.
CONTROL UNIT(CONDT…)
 According to instruction, control unit issues signals to
other units.
 After instruction is executed, the result of the instruction
is stored in memory or stored temporarily in the registry,
so that this can be used by the next instruction.
 The results of a program are taken out of the computer
through the output unit.
MEMORY
 Memory is the computer's electronic scratchpad or local
store in computer terminology.
 Used for temporary storage of calculations, data, and
other work in progress.
 Two types: Primary and Secondary

 Primary memory or the main memory is part of the main

computer system. The primary memory itself is of two
types.
 The first is called random access memory (RAM) and
the other is read only memory (ROM).
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
 The processor directly stores and retrieves information
from it.
 Memory is organized into locations. Each memory
location is identified by a unique address. The access
time is same for all location.
 It is volatile: when turned off, everything in RAM
disappears.
 Two types:
TYPES OF RAM
 Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM):
This type RAM retain the content of any location only
for a few milliseconds. Within that period, each
location must be written again with the same contents.
This is known as refreshing.

 Static Random Access Memory (SRAM):

This type of RAM preserves the contents of all the
locations as long as the power supply is present. SRAM
is generally included in a computer system by the name
of cache.
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
 Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be
modified only slowly or with difficulty, so it is mainly
used to distribute.
 The instructions in ROM are built into the electronic
circuits of the chip which is called firmware.
 Random access in nature and non-volatile.
TYPES OF ROM
 Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-time
programmable ROM can be written to or programmed via a
special device called a PROM programmer.
 Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be
erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light then rewritten
with a process that again needs higher than usual voltage
applied.
 Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory
(EEPROM) is based on a similar semiconductor structure to
EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected banks) to
be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they
need not be removed from the computer
FLASH MEMORY
 Modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984.
 Random access memories and are non-volatile.

 Use one transistor per memory cell and come in

capacities ranging from 1 MB to 32 GB by the year
2007.
 The read time is much smaller (tens of nanoseconds)
compared write time (tens of microseconds).
VARIETIES OF SEMICONDUCTOR
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORIES

Main memory of Read Only Memory

computers (ROM)

Read/Write
memory Factory User Erasable PROM
Programmed Programmable
PROM
SRAM DRAM
Permanent
non-erasable (Non-erasable)
UVEPROM EEPROM
CACHE MEMORY
 High speed memory kept in between processor and
RAM to increase the data execution speed.
 Kept near to the processor.

 Major reason for incorporating cache in the system is

that the CPU is much faster than the DRAM and needs a
place to store information that can be accessed quickly.
 Cache fetches the frequently used data from the DRAM
and buffers (stores) it for further processor usage.
CACHE MEMORY
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF CACHE
 L1-cache is the fastest cache and it usually comes within
the processor chip itself. L1 cache typically ranges in
size from 8KB to 64KB and uses the high-speed SRAM
instead of the slower and cheaper DRAM used for main
memory.
 L2 cache comes between L1 and RAM and is bigger
than the primary cache.
 L3 cache is not found nowadays as its function is
replaced by L2 cache. L3 caches are found on the
motherboard rather than the processor. It is kept between
RAM and L2 cache.
PROCESSOR SPEED
 Speed of a computer system is determined by several
factors, clock speed of the processor and the speed and
size of the data bus.
 Clock speed is the rate at which the processor processes
information and this is measured in millions of cycles
per second(Megahertz)
 The more the number of hertz, the faster is the
processing speed
 The larger the bus width and the faster the bus speed, the
greater the amount of data can travel on it in a given
amount of time.
INPUT DEVICES
 Any peripheral used to provide data and control signals
to an information processing system such as a computer
or other information appliance.
 Common input devices: Keyboard, Mouse

 Other devices: microphone, digital camera, scanner.

OUTPUT DEVICES
 Any piece of computer hardware equipment used to
communicate the results of processed data to the user.
 Examples: Monitors, Printers, Speakers, etc.
 LET US SUMMARISE..
 Computer organization and architecture is defined as the
science of selecting and interconnecting hardware
components to create computers that meet functional,
performance and cost goals.
 The central processing unit is the brain of the computer
system where all the computing is done. It consists of
three main components, the control unit (CU), the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the registers.
 The control unit controls the Input/Output devices and
transfer of data to and from the primary storage.
 ANSWER IN BRIEF
 Write a note on computer architecture
 What is a system bus? Name the various units of the
system bus.
 What is the significance of main memory in proper
functioning of a processor.
 What is an Instruction cycle?
ANSWER IN DETAIL
 What do you understand by Central Processing Unit?
Describe in details various units of the CPU.
 Write a detailed note on Instruction Cycle describing the
various steps involved.
 Describe in details:

 a. Processor to Memory Communication

 b. Processor to I/O Devices Communication

LET US SUMMARISE..
 The Arithmetic Unit is responsible for carrying out the
arithmetic calculations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
 The Logic Unit provides CPU the ability to make logical
operations like comparing two data items and taking
different actions based on the results of the comparison.
 Registers are special purpose, high-speed temporary
memory units used by the processor for holding data.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 The System bus is a set of wires used for interconnection
of different units of a computer system. The three logical
units of a system bus are the address bus, the data bus,
and the control bus.
 A cache is a piece of very fast memory, made from high-
speed static RAM that reduces the access time of the
data. It is very expensive and generally incorporated in
the processor, where valuable data and program
segments are kept.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 Instructions comprise two parts, namely, the op-code and
the operand. They are transferred one at a time into the
processor, where they are decoded and the executed.
 The Instruction Cycle details the sequence of events that
takes place as an instruction is read from memory and
executed.
 In a Fetch Cycle, instruction to be executed is fetched
from the memory to the processor.
 The Decode Cycle is responsible for recognizing which
operation the instruction represents activating the correct
circuitry to perform that operation.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 During the Execute Cycle, the operation specified by the
op-code is performed on user provided data in the ALU.
 In the Store Cycle, the results from the execution cycle
are stored back to the memory.
 Processors are built with the ability to execute a limited
set of basic operations called the Instruction Set.
 The speed of the processor is measured in millions of
cycles per second or Megahertz (MHz).
LET US SUMMARISE..
 Two notables factors on which the speed of a processor
depends are the clock speed of the processor and the
speed and the size of the data bus