Stresses in pipe lines

Contents
 Introduction
 Steps of piping system design
 Stress analysis techniques
 Classification of loads
 Primary Vs Secondary loads
 Static Vs Dynamic loads
 Principal stresses
 Applied loads which causes normal and shear stresses
 Theories of failure
 Piping codes
 ASME B31.1
 ASME B31.3
 ASME B31.9
Contents
 Pipe Supports
 Different types of supports
 Piping systems supports designing
 Buried pipes design
 Soil Mechanics
 Rigid Vs flexible pipes
 Water systems
 Marston load theory
Introduction to piping stress analysis
 Pipes are the most delicate components in any process
plant.
 It is very important to take note of all potential loads that a
piping system would encounter during operation as well as
during other stages in the life cycle of a process plant.
 Ignoring any such load while designing, erecting, hydro-
testing, start-up shut-down, normal operation, maintenance
etc. can lead to inadequate design and engineering of
a piping system.
 Stress analysis and safe design normally require
appreciation of several related concepts.
Steps of piping system design
 An approximate list of the steps that would be involved is as
follows:
1. Identify potential loads.
2. Relate each one of these loads to the stresses and strains.
3. Decide the worst three dimensional stress state .
4. Get the cumulative effect of all the potential, loads on
the 3-D stress scenario in the piping system under
consideration.
5. Alter piping system design to ensure that the stress
pattern is within failure limits.
Stress analysis techniques
 The analysis of stresses may be carried to varying degrees
of refinement.
 Manual systems allow for the analysis of simple systems.
 There are methods like chart solutions (for three-dimensional
routings) and rules of thumb (for number and placement of
supports) etc. involving long and tedious computations and
high expense.
 All such methods may be classified as follows:
1. Approximate methods dealing only with special piping
configurations of two-three or four-member systems .
The approximate methods falling into this category are
limited in scope of direct application.
Stress analysis techniques
2. Methods restricted to square-corner, single-plane systems
with two fixed ends, but without limit as to the number of
members.
3. Methods adaptable to space configurations with square
corners and two fixed ends.
4. Extensions of the previous methods to provide for
the special properties of curved pipe by indirect means,
usually a virtual length correction factor.
Classification of loads and failure
modes
Classification of loads:
A. Primary Loads.
B. Secondary Loads.

Classification of failure modes:

A. sudden failure due to onetime loading(attribute to primary
loading)
B. fatigue failure due to cyclic loading(attribute to secondary
loading)
Primary Loads

 These are typically steady or sustained types of loads.

 Primary loads are usually force driven.
 Primary loads are not self-limiting.
 Allowable limits of primary stresses are related to ultimate
tensile strength.
 Design requirements due to primary loads are encompassed
in minimum wall thickness requirements (In codes).
Secondary Loads

 Secondary loads are usually displacement driven.

 Secondary loads are self-limiting.
 Allowable loads for secondary stresses are based upon
fatigue failure modes.
 Secondary loads are cyclic in nature (expect settlement).
 Secondary application of load never produces sudden failure
and sudden failure occurs after a number of applications of
load.
Static vs. Dynamic loads

 Static loads are those loads applied on to the piping system

so slowly that the system has time to respond, react and also
to disturb the load. Hence, the system remains in equilibrium.

 The dynamic load changes so quickly with time that the

system will have no time to distribute the load. Hence the
system develops unbalanced forces.
Types of dynamic loading
1. Random: here the load changes unpredictably with time.
The major loads covered under this type are :-
(a) Wind load.
(b) Earthquake.
2. Harmonic: here the load changes in magnitude and
direction in a sine profile. The major loads
covered under this are:-
(a) Equipment Vibration.
(b) Acoustic Vibration.
3. Pulsation: This type of loading occurs due to flow from
reciprocating pumps, compressors etc.
The major types of loads covered under this
are:-
(a) Relief valve outlet.
(b) Fluid hammer.
Types of stresses acting on a pipe
 When calculate stresses, we choose a set of orthogonal
directions and define the stresses in this co-ordinate system.
 Types of loads according to their direction are axial ,
circumferential (Hoop’s direction) and radial
Principal stresses
 The mechanics of solids state that it would also be
orientation which minimizes some other normal stress.
 Normal stresses for such orientation (maximum normal
stress orientation) are called principal stresses, and are
designated S1 (maximum), S2 and S3 (minimum).
 Solid mechanics also states that the sum of the three normal
stresses for all orientation is always the same for any given
external load.
Principal stresses
 In addition to the normal stresses, a grain can be subjected
to shear stresses as well.
 The maximum shear stress in a 3-D state of stress can be
shown to be

Use of Mohr's circle then allows calculating the two principle

stresses and maximum shear stress as follows:
Applied Loads which causes
normal and Shear Stresses

 Axial Load
 Internal / External Pressure
 Bending Load
 Shear Load
 Torsional Load
Axial Load
 A pipe may face an axial force (FL).
 It could be tensile or compressive.
Internal / External Pressure
 A pipe used for transporting fluid would be under internal
pressure load. (Like jacketed pipe core or tubes in a Shell)
Bending Load
 The bending moment can be related to normal and shear
stresses.
 Pipe bending is caused mainly due to two reasons: Uniform
weight load and concentrated weight load
Bending Load
 Stress due to bending moment is not uniform through all the
pipe’s cross section
Shear Load
 Shear load causes shear stresses.
 Shear load may be of different types. Common load is the
shear force (V) acting on the cross-section of the pipe
Torsional Load
 The shear stress caused due to torsion is maximum at outer
pipe radius & it is given in terms of the torsional moment and
pipe dimensions.
Allowable stresses

 Allowable stresses as specified in the various codes are

based on the material properties. These can be classified in
two categories

 Time Independent stresses

 Time dependent stresses
Theories of Failure
 There are various theories of failure that have been put forth.
These theories differ only in the way the above mentioned
function is defined.
 Important theories in common use are considered here

 Maximum Stress Theory (Rankine Theory)

 Maximum Shear Theory (Tresca Theory)
 Octahedral Shear Theory (Von Mises Theory)
Rankine Theory
 Maximum Stress Theory (Rankine Theory)
 According to this theory, failure occurs when the maximum
principle stress in a system is greater than the maximum tensile
principle stress at yield in a specimen subjected to uni-axial
tension test.
Maximum Shear Theory (Tresca
Theory)

 According to this theory, failure occurs when the maximum shear

stress in a system τmax is greater than the maximum shear stress
at yield in a specimen subjected to uni-axial tension test.
Octahedral Shear Theory (Von
Mises Theory)
 Octahedral Shear Theory (Von Mises Theory)
 According to this theory, failure occurs when the octahedral shear
stress in a system is greater than the octahedral shear stress at
yield in a specimen subjected to uniaxial tension test.
Design under Secondary Load
 A pipe designed to withstand primary loads and to avoid
catastrophic failure may fall after a sufficient amount of time
due to secondary cyclic load causing, fatigue failure.

 The secondary loads are often cyclic in nature. The number

of cycles to failure is a property of the material of
construction just as yield stress is.

 This number of cycles to failure is the corresponding material

property important in design under cyclic loads aim at
ensuring that the failure does not take place within a certain
period for which the system is to be designed.
Design under Secondary Load
 Fatigue test is carried out on a specimen subjected to cycles
of uni-axial tensile and compressive loads of certain
amplitude. The specimen is subjected to a gradually
increasing load leading to a maximum tensile load of W, then
the load is removed gradually till it passes through zero and
becomes gradually a compressive load of W (i.e. a load of
W), then a tensile load of W and so on. Time averaged load
is thus zero.

 The cycles to failure are then measured; the experiments are

repeated with different amplitudes of load.
Piping codes
 The most famous codes for pipe design are the ASME
Codes

 From the ASME’s various codes the most used are

 ASME 31.1 Power piping

 ASME 31.3 Process piping
 ASME 31.9 Building services piping
ASME code
 This code was published by ASA ( American standard
Association ) known as ANSI ( American national standard
institute ) then it’s developed to the current ASME code
 The code is divided into several documents each is
concerned with particular industry .
 Code is consists of:
 B31.1 Power Piping
 B31.3 Process Piping
 B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons
and Other Liquids
 B31.5 Refrigeration Piping
 B31.8 Gas Transportation and Distribution Piping
 B31.9 Building Services Piping
 B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems.
ASME 31.1 Power piping
 This code relates particularly to piping that would be found in
electrical power plants, commercial and institutional plants,
geothermal plants, and central heating and cooling plants.(so
it’s called power piping)
 It’s used in piping known as “ boiler external piping “ as it’s
considered part of the boiler
 This code can’t be used in industries such as :
 component covered by pressure vessel code or ASME boiler
code
 Structural components .
 Tanks and instrumentation.
 The code specify some useful formulas for determining
either the design pressure of a particular pipe or the required
wall thickness of a pipe operating at a certain pressure.
ASME 31.1 Design equations

Where
P = Internal design gage pressure [psi or kPa]
The pressure is either given or solved for in the equations.
S = Maximum allowable stress values in tension for the material
at the design temperature [psi or kPa]
E,F,A = welding efficiency , casting factor and additional
thickness respectively
ASME 31.1 Limits
 The code also specify the limits for :
 sustained and displacement stresses

Where :
Ss = Sustained stress i = Stress Intensification factor.
Sh = Basic allowable stress at the operating temperature
MA = Resultant moment due to primary loads
= ( Mx² + My² + Mz² ) 0.5
ASME 31.1 Limits cont.
 Occasional stresses

Where:
So = Occasional stress. K = Occasional load factor

 Expansion stresses

Where:
SA = Allowable expansion stress range
ASME 31.1 Flexibility analysis

 To study the system behavior when its temperature changes

from ambient to operating point, so as to arrive at the most
economical layout with adequate safety.

 The considerations that decide the minimum acceptable

flexibility on a piping configuration:
1. The maximum allowable stress range in the system.
2. The limiting values of forces and moments that the piping
system is permitted to impose on the equipment to which it is
connected.
3. The displacements within the piping system.
4. The maximum allowable load on the supporting structure.
Methods of Flexibility Analysis

 There are two methods of flexibility analysis which involve

manual calculations:
1. Check as per clause 119.7.1/319.4.1 of the piping code
 K ≥ DY/(L-U) 2

2. Guided Cantilever Method

 L= (DEδ/48f)1/2
ASME 31.1 Testing
 Pressure Test: After a pipe system is installed in the field, it is
usually pressure tested to ensure that there are no leaks. Once
a system is in operation, it is difficult, if not impossible, to repair
leaks.
 Hydrostatic Testing: It is important to provide high point vents
and low point drains in all piping systems to be hydrotested. The
high point vents are to permit the venting of air, which if trapped
during the hydrotest may result in fluctuating pressure levels
during the test period. The drains are to allow the piping to be
emptied of the test medium prior to filling with the operating fluid.
 pneumatic test: A preliminary pneumatic test is often applied,
holding the test pressure at 25 psig to locate leaks prior to
testing at the test pressure. The test pressure for pneumatic
tests is to be at least 1.2 but not more than 1.5 times the design
pressure.
ASME 31.3 Process piping
 The term “process piping” is generally considered to be the piping
that one may find in chemical plants, refineries, paper mills, and
other manufacturing plants.
 The ASME 31.3 code is arranged as 31.1 chapters and paragraphs
but here the paragraph has number 300 instead of 100

 Scope
 The scope of this code includes all fluids. This scope specifically
excludes the following:
 Piping with an internal design pressure between 0 and 15 psi
(105 kPa)
 Tubes inside fired heaters
 Pressure vessels, heat exchangers, pumps, or compressors.
ASME 31.3 cont.
 Design criterion
The difference between ASME 31.1 and 31.3 that 31.1 is focused
more on steel pipe and fittings, while 31.3 pertains more to
nonmetallic pipe and fittings. The obvious reason is that process
piping deals with more fluids that are corrosive to steel. In many
cases, thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics, and resins will be
more appropriate materials for the fluids handled in the purview of
the process piping code.
 Fluid Categories:
 D fluids : nonflammable, nontoxic, and not damaging to human tissue.
design pressure does not exceed 150 psig (1035 kPa) & design
temperature is between -20°F and 366°F (-29°C and 186°C).
 M fluids : a single exposure to a very small quantity could lead to serious
irreversible harm
 High pressure fluid : higher than allowed in ASME B16.5 PN420
 All fluids not listed in the above categories
ASME 31.3 Design equations

Where :
tm = Minimum required wall thickness [in or mm].
t = Pressure design thickness, as determined by
any of the Formulas (3a) through (3b) [in or mm].
c = Mechanical, corrosion, or erosion allowances [in or mm]
S = Stress in material at the design temperature [psi or kPa].
E = Quality Factor W = Weld Joint Strength Factor.
Y = A coefficient used to account for material creep
ASME 31.3 Limits
 As ASME 31.1, ASME 31.3 has limits formulas
 For sustain stresses

Where :
FAX = Axial force due to sustained ( primary ) loading
Mi = In-plane loading moment due to sustained ( primary )
Mo = Out-plane loading moment due to sustained ( primary )
loading.
ii , io = in-plane and out –plane stress intensification factors.
Sh = Basic allowable stress at operating temperature.
ASME 31.3 Limits cont.
 For expansion

Where:
SE = Expansion stress range
MT = Range or torsional bending moment due to expansion
load
SA = Allowable stress range.
ASME 31.3 cont.
 ASME 31.3 specify branching specifications for each fluid
category defining some parameters and requirements
 The run pipe diameter-to-thickness ratio (Dh/Th) < 100
 the branch-to-run diameter ratio (Db/Dh) is not greater than 1.0.
 If Dh/Th >= 100, the branch diameter Db has to be less than one-
half the run diameter Dh.
 The angle between the branch and run is at least 45°.
 Another section of ASME 31.3 is for the welding types for
each fluid category
 ASME 31.3 also discussed the pipes that required to be
“safeguarded “ ( need more protective measures to minimize
the risk of accidental damage to a piping system)
ASME 31.3 Testing
 Leak test: all piping designed in accordance with B31.3 be
leak tested according to fluid category the test steps is
specified.
 Hydrostatic test: As in ASME 31.1
 pneumatic leak test: Due to the possibility of brittle fracture of
nonmetallic piping which may be found in systems under the
scope of B31.3 the test requires a pressure relief device
having a set pressure of the test pressure plus the smaller of
50 psi or 10 percent of the test pressure.
 Because chemical piping can involve core complicated
equipment and piping designs, there may be additional
factors to be considered in a pressure test.
 Because there may be elevated temperatures, the code
includes a provision for establishing a more appropriate test
pressure.
ASME 31.9 Building services piping
 The scope of this code envelopes industrial, institutional,
commercial, public buildings and multi-unit residences.
 there are many similarities between B31.9 and B31.1.
 Both codes cover boiler external piping. However, B31.9
includes steam boilers up to 15 psig maximum, while B31.1
uses 15 psig as a lower limit of its scope. Similarly, B31.9
includes water heating units up to 160 psig maximum, while
B31.1 uses 160 psig as its lower limit for hot water.
ASME 31.9 Design equations

Where :
the variables are defined as in ASME B31.1.
tm = Minimum required wall thickness[in. or mm]
P = Internal design gage pressure [psi or kPa]
The pressure is either given or solved for in the equations.
S = Maximum allowable stress values in tension for the material
at the design temperature [psi or kPa]
E, A = welding efficiency and additional thickness respectively
Pipe supports

 It transmits the load from pipe to structures or pressure

equipment .
 It bear the dead loading, live loading, wind, snow, and
seismic loadings, as well as the loads imposed or caused by
variations in temperatures.
Pipe supports standards
 ANSI31.1 &31.3 i.e. Power Piping & Process Piping.
 MSS–SP 58 Pipe Hangers and Support: Materials, Design &
Manufacturers.
 MSS–SP 69 Pipe Hangers and Supports: Selection &
Application.
 MSS–SP 77 Guidelines for Pipe Supports Contractual
Relationships.
Types of supports

 There are six main types of supports:

1. Rigid or weight supports & hangers.
2. Variable effort supports & hangers.
3. Constant effort supports.
4. Spring loaded sway braces.
5. Dynamic restraints.
6. Snubbers & shock absorbers.
7. Ancillary items

 These types of supports can be divided into three main types

which are rigid supports, variable effort support and constant
effort support
Rigid supports

 Rigid Hangers are normally used at suspension points where

no vertical movement occurs and the only considerations are
the Load at the point of support, line temperature, Pipe
Material of construction, and insulation thickness.
 Rigid supports support the Pipe line from the bottom and
usually rest on the floor, pipe rack or structure. Pipe line
subjected to horizontal expansions only may be supported by
Pipe roller guides and when both “X” & “Z” direction
movement takes place pipe lines are supported by pipe
shoes with low friction slide bearings beneath them.
Variable effort supports & hangers
 Variable effort supports also known as variable hangers or
variables are used to support pipe lines subjected to
moderate (approximately up to 50mm) vertical thermal
movements.
 Variable effort supports are used to support the weight of
pipe work or equipments along with weight of fluids (gases
are considered weightless) while allowing certain quantum of
movement with respect to the structure supporting it.
 Spring supports may also be used to support lines subject to
relative movements occurring typically due to subsidence or
earthquakes.
 Constant effort supports and hangers
 In a constant effort support the load
remains constant when the pipe moves
from its cold position to the hot position.
Thus irrespective of travel the load
remains constant over the complete
range of movement.
 When confronted with large vertical
movements typically 150 mm or 250 mm,
there is no choice but to select a constant
effort support (CES).
 For pipes which are critical to the
performance of the system or so called
critical piping where no residual stresses
are to be transferred to the pipe it is a
common practice to use CES‘s.
Sway braces
 They are spring loaded units mounted
on pipe work to limit the swaying or
vibration induced by external forces by
applying an opposing force on the
pipe.
Dynamic restraints
 A restraint is a device that prevents
either the pipe work or the plant to
which the pipe work is connected
being damaged due to the occurrence
of Earthquakes, Fluid disturbances
and other environmental influences
 It is designed to absorb and transfer
sudden increases in load from the pipe
into the building structure and to
deaden any opposing oscillation
between the pipe and the structure.
Snubbers and shock absorbers
 A fluid passes through a spring-
loaded valve, the spring being used
to hold the valve open. If the
differential pressure across the valve
exceeds the effective pressure
exerted by the spring, the valve will
close. This causes the snubber to
become rigid and further
displacement is substantially
prevented.
Ancillary items
 Ancillaries are the hardware that
complement supports and allow the
connection of the pipe to the building
structure, sometimes as simple as a
pipe shoe or comprised of many
items from a beam clamp through
hanger rods, spreader beams and
pipe clamps.
Pipe system support designing
Supports specifications
 These specifications must be taken into consideration by the
designer:
1. The exact hot or operating load required to be supported during the
working condition.
2. Hydrostatic test load.
3. The total travel.
4. The direction of travel either upwards or downwards from the erected
position.
5. The set pin locking position.
6. The basic model.
7. Requirements of bottom accessory components such as rods, clamps
etc.
8. Any hazardous environmental conditions.
9. Any special finish on the body such as galvanizing.
Location of supports
 Supports should be located at near as possible to
concentrated loads as valves, flanges etc. to keep the
bending stresses to the minimum.
Thermal movement in pipe supports
 Pipe lines which carry fluids have a tendency to expand with
increase in temperature.
Thermal movement in pipe supports
 To avoid the above situation a flexible support is introduced
which will allow the Pipe to move vertically and at the same
time support the load of the pipe to prevent its weight being
transferred to the nozzle.
Maximum Load Variation
 This is the variation in load or stress imposed on the pipe
work system when moving from the cold condition to the hot
condition. This is usually expressed as a percentage of the
hot load.
 As the pipe is suspended or supported directly on a spring
any thermal movement of pipe line will force the support to
expand or compress causing either a decrease or increase in
load.
 LV= (Hot Load – Cold Load)*100/Hot Load
 LV= (Travel * Spring rate)*100/Hot Load
Steps for selection of hangers to
suit specified load variation
 Determine the required supporting effort & pipe movement
 Locate the spring size which accommodates the required Load.
 Use tables to choose a type and use trial and error method.
 Calculate the cold or hot loads.
 Ensure that both the cold load & hot load can be accommodated
in the same type of support .
 If the Loads & travel cannot be accommodated, try the next size
or the next travel range.
 Continue this iteration process till the following criteria are
met:
 Operating & Preset Load in the same type.
 Load variation less than specified LV%.
 Smallest possible size selected.
Buried Pipe Design
 Underground conduits have served to improve people’s
standard of living since the dawn of civilization. . Remnants of
such structures from ancient civilizations have been found in
Europe, Asia, and even the western hemisphere.

 Today, underground conduits serve in diverse applications such

as sewer lines, drain lines, water mains, gas lines, telephone
and electrical conduits, culverts, oil lines, coal slurry lines,
subway tunnels, and heat distribution lines.

 It is true we must “build down” before we can “build up.”.

 In the early 1900s, Anson Marston developed a method of

calculating the earth load to which a buried conduit is subjected
in service.
Soil Mechanics
 Various parameters must be considered in the design of a buried
piping system. soil type, soil density, moisture content, and
depth of the installation are commonly considered. If finite
element analysis is used, many soil characteristics are required
as input to the mathematical soil model.

 the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is most commonly

used in the construction industry.

 Soil stiffness (modulus) is an extremely important soil property

and is the main contributor to the pipe-soil system performance.
Experience has shown that a high soil density will ensure high.
soil stiffness. Therefore, soil density is usually given special
importance in piping system design.
Materials used in buried pipes

 There are many types of piping materials on the market today

ranging from rigid concrete to flexible thermal plastic. Such
things as inherent strength, stiffness, corrosion resistance,
lightness, flexibility, and ease of joining are some characteristics
that are often given as reasons for using a particular material.

 A pipe must have enough strength and/or stiffness to perform its

intended function. It must also be durable enough to last for its
design life.

 Piping materials are generally placed in one of two

classifications: rigid or flexible. A flexible pipe has been defined
as one that will deflect at least 2 percent without structural
distress.
Rigid pipes Vs Flexible pipes
 For rigid pipes, strength to resist wall stresses due to the combined
effects of internal pressure and external load is usually critical.
 For flexible pipes, stiffness may be important in resisting ring
deflection and possible buckling
 For a thermal plastic pipe, such as PVC pipe, strength is measured
in terms of a long-term hydrostatic design hoop stress.
Pipe Hydraulics
 The field of study of fluid flow in pipes is often referred to as
hydraulics.
 Flow in pipes is usually classified as pressure flow for systems
where pipes are flowing full or open-channel flow when pipes
are not flowing full. Water systems are pressure systems and
are considered to be flowing full.
 On the other hand, sewer systems, for the most part, are open-
channel systems.
 The relatively small concentration of solids is not sufficient, Thus
sewage is accepted to have the same hydraulic flow
characteristics as water.
 For pressure flow, the Hazen-Williams equation is widely
accepted.
Water Systems
 Water systems are lifelines of communities. They consist of such
items as valves, fittings, thrust restraints, pumps, reservoirs,
and, of course, pipes and other miscellaneous appurtenances
 The water system is sometimes divided into two parts: the
transmission lines and the distribution system.
 The design of distribution piping system is somewhat similar to
that of transmission lines except that a substantial surge
allowance for possible water hammer is included in the pressure
design.
 The hydraulic analysis of such a system is almost impossible by
“hand” methods, but is readily accomplished using programming
methods via digital computers.
Buried Pipe Design
 The piping system must be strong enough to withstand induced
stresses, have relatively smooth walls, have a tight joining
system, and be somewhat chemically inert with respect to soil
and water.
 The normal design life for such systems should be 50 years
minimum. However, 50 years is not long enough. Government
and private agencies cannot afford to replace all the buried pipe
infrastructures on a 50-year basis.100 year is better.
 For engineers, economics is always an important consideration;
any economic evaluation must include more than just initial cost.
Annual maintenance and life of the system must also be
considered.
 The question is not whether the pipe will last, but how long it
will perform its designed function.
Marston load theory
a) Rigid pipe

The Marston load theory is based on

the concept of a prism of soil in the
trench that imposes a load on the pipe.
Marston load theory.
a) Rigid pipe
 Embankment conditions.

Not all pipes are installed in ditches (trenches); therefore, it is

necessary to treat the problem of pipes buried in
embankments.

An embankment is where the top of the pipe is above the

natural ground.
Marston load theory.
 Embankment
conditions.
 Not all pipes are
installed in ditches
(trenches); therefore,
it is necessary to treat
the problem of pipes
buried in
embankments.
Marston load theory.
 Tunnel construction.
Marston’s theory may be used to determine soil loads on
pipes that are in tunnels or that are jacked into place through
undisturbed soil. The Marston tunnel load equation is

C is very important in determining the load. Unfortunately,

values of the coefficient C have a wide range of variation
even for similar soils.
Marston load theory.
b) Flexible pipe

* A flexible pipe derives its soil-load-carrying capacity from its

flexibility. Under soil load, the pipe tends to deflect, thereby
developing passive Soil support at the sides of the pipe.
* The effective strength of the flexible pipe-soil system is
remarkably high
Marston load theory.
 Marston load theory.

For the special case when the side fill and pipe have the
same stiffness.
Pipe stiffness versus soil
compressibility
 Measurements revealed that the load on a flexible pipe is
substantially less than that on a rigid pipe.
The magnitude of this difference in loads may be a little
shocking.
 Suppose a weight is placed on a spring. We realize the
spring will deform, resisting deflection because of its spring
stiffness.
When load versus deflection is plotted, we find that this
relationship is linear up to the elastic limit of the spring
Pipe stiffness versus soil
compressibility
 When a load is placed on a flexible pipe, the pipe also
deflects and resists deflection because of its stiffness. It is
even possible to think of soil as being a nonlinear spring that
resists movement or deflection because of its stiffness.
Pipe stiffness versus soil
compressibility
 we can easily visualize the soil deforming and the pipe
carrying the majority of the load.
If the situation is reversed, placing a flexible spring between
two springs(soil), we can picture the pipe deflecting and the
soil is being forced to carry the load to a greater extent.
Pipe stiffness versus soil
compressibility
 Pipe stiffness versus soil compressibility
When a flexible pipe is buried in the soil, the pipe and soil
then work as a system in resisting the load.
Pipe stiffness versus soil
compressibility
The reduction in load imposed on a pipe because of its
flexibility is referred to as arching. However, the overall
performance is not just due to arching, but is also due to the
soil at the sides of the pipe resisting deflection
Continue Marston load theory
 Prism load
It is the weight. of the soil over the pipe
Again, Eq. (2.4) represents a maximum-type loading
condition, and Eq. (2.10) represents a minimum.

For a flexible pipe, the maximum load is always much too

large. The mini is the same.
The actual load will lie somewhere between these limits.
Continue Marston load theory
 Tunnel Loading
since a flexible pipe develops a large percentage of its load-
carrying capacity from passive side support, this support
must be provided, or the pipe will tend to deflect until the
sides of the pipe are being supported by the sides of the
tunnel.
Thank You