UTILISATION OF ELECTRIC POWER
MODULE 1
ELECTRIC TRACTION
Course Code: EE702
Co ordinator: Dr. Nandita Sanyal
Train movement ( speed time curve, simplified speed time curve, average speed and schedule speed
The curve drawn between speed and time is called the speed-time-curve. The speed-time curve gives complete
information of the motion of the train. The curve gives the speed at various instants after the start of run
directly. Slope of the curve at any point gives the acceleration at the corresponding instant or speed. The area
covered by the curve, the time axis and the ordinates through the instants between which the time is taken,
represents the distance covered in the corresponding time interval.
The typical speed time curve for a locomotive is shown in Figure given in the previous slide.
The curve may be broadly split into the following periods :
1. Acceleration period : From starting to the stage when locomotive attains maximum speed, the period is known as
acceleration period, as the vehicle is constantly accelerated. This is represented by OA portion of the curve and
time duration is t1.
2. Free running : During this period the motor develops enough torque to overcome the friction and wind resistance
and hence the locomotive runs at constant speed. This is shown by the portion AB of the curve.
3. Coasting : When the locomotive is running at certain speed, if the motor is switch off, due to inertia the vehicle
will continue to run, of course with little deceleration due to friction and windage.
4. Braking : The locomotive is retarded to stop it within short distance and at a particular spot. The shape of the
curve will change depending upon the distance between consecutive stations .
Introduction to Train Movement and Energy Consumption:
The movement of trains and their energy consumption can be most conveniently studied by means of speed-time and speed-distance curves, which show
respectively the speed at different time instants after the start of run and the speed at different distances from the starting point. Of the two, the speed-time curve
is generally the more useful.
Typical Speed-Time Curves:
1. Urban or City Service:
In urban or city service the distance between the two stops is comparatively very short (say 1 km or so). The time required for this run is very small (few minutes).
The acceleration as well as retardation is required to be high so that high average speed and short time of run is obtained. The acceleration and retardation for
urban service is between 1.5 and 4 kmphps and between 3 and 4 kmphps respectively. Free run is not present in this run. The coasting retardation is about 0.15
kmphps. The coasting period is also small.
2. Suburban Service:
In this service the distance between the stops is little longer than urban service but smaller
than main line service (say between 2 and 5 km). Free run is still not possible. Coasting is
for a comparatively longer period. Acceleration and retardation required are as high as for
urban service.
(i) Acceleration:
It consists of two parts known as:
(a) Constant acceleration or acceleration while notching up and
(b) Speed curve running or acceleration on the speed curve.
(a) Constant Acceleration or Acceleration during Notching Up:
During notching up period (0 to t1) the current is maintained approximately
constant and the voltage across the motor is gradually increased by cutting
out the starting resistance. Thus tractive effort is constant and, therefore,
acceleration remains constant during this period.
(b) Speed Curve Running or Acceleration on Speed Curve:
During speed curve running (t1 to t2) the voltage acting across the motor remains constant and current starts decreasing with the increase in speed
according to the characteristics of the motor and finally the current taken by the motor becomes constant. During this period, though the train
accelerates but acceleration decreases with the increase in speed and finally becomes zero at the speed at which the tractive effort developed by the
motor becomes exactly equal to the resistance to motion of the train.
(ii) Free Run or Constant Speed Run:
At the end of speed curve running i.e., at t2 the train attains the maximum speed. During this period the train runs with constant speed attained at and constant
power is drawn.
(iii) Coasting:
At the end of free running period (i.e., at t3) power supply is cut off and the train is allowed to run under its own momentum. The speed of train starts decreasing on
account of resistance to the motion of train. The rate of decrease of speed during coasting period is known as coasting retardation.
(iv) Retardation or Braking Period:
At the end of coasting period (i.e., at t4) the brakes are applied to bring the train to rest. During this period speed decreases rapidly and finally reduces to zero.
Type of Service Acceleration in Retardation in Maximum Distance between Remarks
kmphps kmphps speed in Kmph station in Km
Urban 1.50-4.00 3.00-4.00 120 1 No free running period , Coasting period small
Suburban 1.50-4.00 3.00-4.00 120 2-5 No free running period , Coasting period long
Main Line 0.6-0.8 1.5 160 More than 10km Free running period , Coasting period long,
Acceleration and Braking period comparatively
small
The acceleration and free-running periods are governed by the speed-torque characteristics of the electric traction motors, and these must be
available before this part of the curve can be determined. Coasting and braking are governed by the train resistance and the allowable braking
retardation respectively. The actual shape of any particular speed-time curve may be somewhat different from the above due to the existence of
gradients and with different lengths of run.
Crest Speed, Average Speed and Schedule Speed of Train:
Crest Speed:
The maximum speed attained by the vehicle during the run is known as crest speed.
Average Speed:
The mean of the speeds from start to stop i.e., the distance covered between two stops divided by the actual time of run is known as average speed.
Mathematically average speed = Distance between stops/Actual time of run, T
Schedule Speed:
The ratio of distance covered between two stops and total time of run including time of stop is known as schedule speed.
Mathematically schedule speed = Distance between stops/ (Actual time of run + stop time)
From above it is obvious that the schedule speed is always smaller than the average speed. The difference is large in case of urban and suburban services
and is negligibly small in case of main line service.
Factors Affecting Schedule Speed of Train:
The schedule speed of a given train when running on a given service (i.e., with a given distance between stations) is affected by the following
factors:
1. Acceleration and braking retardation.
2. Maximum or crest speed.
3. Duration of stop.
1. Effect of Acceleration and Braking Retardation:
For a given run and with fixed crest speed the increase in acceleration will result in decrease in actual time of run and, therefore, increase in schedule
speed. Similarly increase in braking retardation will affect the schedule speed. Variation in acceleration and retardation will have more effect on schedule
speed in case of shorter distance run in comparison to longer distance run.
2. Effect of Maximum Speed:
For a constant distance run and with fixed acceleration and retardation the actual time of run will decrease, and therefore, schedule speed will increase
with the increase in crest speed. The effect of variation in crest speed on schedule speed is considerable in case of long distance run.
3. Effect of Duration of Stop:
For a given average speed the schedule speed will increase by reducing the duration of stop. The variation in duration of stop will affect the schedule
speed more in case of shorter distance run as compared to longer distance run. It is because stops in case of urban and suburban services are kept very
small (say 15 to 20 seconds). When the distance between stations is much larger and duration of actual run is long as in case of main line service, station
stop has less conspicuous effect on the schedule speed.
The following examples illustrate the methods of calculations:
1. Calculations by Trapezoidal Speed-Time Curve:
Let α = Acceleration in kmphps β = Retardation in kmphps V m = Crest speed in kmph T = Total time of run in seconds.
Time for acceleration in seconds, t1 = Vm/α
Time for retardation in seconds, t3 = Vm/β
Time for free running in seconds, t2 = T – (t1 + t3)
= T – (Vm/α + Vm/β)
Total distance of run in km, S = Distance travelled during acceleration+ distance travelled during
free run+ distance travelled during braking
The +ve sign cannot be adopted, as value of Vm obtained by using +ve sign will be much higher than that is possible in practice. Hence -ve sign will be used and,
therefore, we have
From the above equation unknown quantity can be determined by substituting the value of
known quantities.
2. Calculation by Quadrilateral Speed-Time Curve:
Let α = Acceleration in kmphps
βc = Coasting retardation in kmphps
β = Braking retardation in kmphps
V1 = Maximum speed at the end of acceleration in kmph
V2 = Speed at the end of coasting in kmph
T = Total time of run in seconds
Time of acceleration in seconds, t1 = V1/α
Time of coasting in seconds, t2 = (V1 –V2) / βc
Time of braking in seconds, t3 = V2/β
Total distance travelled in km,
S = Distance travelled during acceleration + distance travelled during coasting + distance
travelled during retardation
Mechanism of train movement (energy consumption, tractive effort during acceleration, tractive effort on a
gradient, tractive effort for resistance, power & energy output for the driving axles, factors affecting specific energy
consumption, coefficient of adhesion).
Essential driving mechanism of an electric locomotive is shown in Figure. The armature of the driving motor has a pinion of diameter d’ attached to it. The tractive
effort at the edge of the pinion is transferred to the driving wheel by means of a gearwheel.
Let the driving motor exert a torque T in Nm.
Tractive effort at the edge of pinion is given by the equation-
Let the driving motor exert a torque T in Nm.
Tractive effort at the edge of pinion is given by the equation-
T = F’ (d’/2) or F’ = 2T/d’
Tractive effort transferred to the driving wheel- where d is diameter of gearwheel in metres, D is diameter of driving wheel in metres and η
is the efficiency of transmission,γ is the gear ratio and is equal to d/d’.
The maximum frictional force between the driving wheel and the track = µW where µ is the coefficient of adhesion between the driving wheel and the track and W is
the weight of the train on the driving axles (called adhesive weight). Slipping will not take place unless tractive effort F > µW. For motion of trains without slipping
tractive effort F should be less than or at the most equal to µW but in no case greater than µW.
The magnitude of the tractive effort that can be employed for propulsion, therefore, depends upon the weight coming over the driving wheels and the coefficient of
adhesion between the driving wheel and the track. The coefficient of adhesion is defined as
i.e., Coefficient of adhesion,
µ = Maximum tractive effort that can be applied without slipping of wheels/Adhesive weight (Weight on the driving wheels)
The coefficient of adhesion reduces with the increase in speed .
Speed in
Kmph
0 15
30 45 60 75
Coefficient 0.25 0.18 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.09
of
Adhesion
The normal value of coefficient of adhesion with clean dry rails is 0.25 and with wet or greasy rails the value may be as low as 0.08.
Electric traction has a very important advantage over steam traction and that is on account of greater adhesive weight – in a motor coach 100 per cent of
the weight is on the driving wheels, in an electric locomotive 70 per cent whereas in a steam locomotive less than 50 per cent.
The coefficient of adhesion in electric traction is also greater than that in steam traction due to the following two reasons:
(i) In electric traction the torque exerted is continuous whereas in steam traction the torque is pulsating which causes jolting and skidding.
(ii) In electric traction the driving wheels are distributed over a much greater length whereas in steam traction they are close to each other.
Since higher value of tractive effort can be used in electric traction, therefore, an electric train can be made to accelerate at a faster rate. This results in saving
of time, especially when the distance between stops is small e.g., in urban and suburban areas.
Tractive Effort for Propulsion of Train:
The effective force, necessary to propel the train, at the wheels of locomotive is called the tractive effort. It is tangential to the driving wheels and measured in
N.
Total tractive effort required to run a train on track = Tractive effort required for linear and angular acceleration + tractive effort to overcome the effect of
gravity + tractive effort to overcome the train resistance.
or Ft= Fa ± Fg + Fr
1. Tractive Effort for Acceleration:
According to laws of dynamics force is required to accelerate the motion of the body and is given by the expression -Force = Mass ×
acceleration
Consider a train of weight W tonnes being accelerated at a kmphps
The weight of train = 1,000 W kgf
Mass of train, m = 1,000 W kg
Acceleration = α kmphps
= α × 1,000/3,600 m/s2 With the linear acceleration of the train, the rotating parts of the train such as wheels and
= 0.2778 α m/s2 motors also accelerate in an angular direction, and therefore, the tractive effort required is
Tractive effort required for linear acceleration, equal to the arithmetic sum of tractive effort required to have the angular acceleration of
rotating parts and tractive effort required to have the linear acceleration. The tractive effort
Fa = mα required to have the angular acceleration depends upon the individual weight, radius of
= 1,000 W × 0.2778 α gyration etc. of the rotating parts requiring angular acceleration. Hence the equivalent or
accelerating weight of the train is taken as We, which is higher than the dead weight W
= 277.8 W α N requiring linear acceleration to consider the tractive effort for the angular acceleration. In
practice We is higher than W by 8 to 15%. The normal value lies between 10 and 12 per
cent.
Hence tractive effort required for acceleration-
Fa = 277.8 We α N
2. Tractive Effort for Overcoming the Effect of Gravity:
When a train is on a slope, a force of gravity equal to the component of the dead weight
along the slope acts on the train and tends to cause its motion down the gradient or slope.
Hence force due to gradient, Fg = 1,000 W sin θ kg …(11.10)
But in railway work gradient is expressed as rise in metres in a track distance of 100 metres
and is denoted as ‘percentage gradient’ (G%).
i.e., G = Sin θ × 100
or sin θ = G/100
Substituting sin θ = G/100 we have,
Fg = 1,000 W x G/100
= 10 WG kg = 10WG x 9.81
= 98.1 WG N
When the train is going up a gradient, the tractive effort will be required to balance this force due to gradient but while going down the gradient, the
force will add to the tractive effort.
3. Tractive Effort for Overcoming Train Resistance:
Train resistance consists of all the forces resisting the motion of a train when it is running at uniform speed on a straight and level track. Under these
circumstances the whole of the energy output from the driving axles is expended against train resistance.
Train resistance is due to:
(i) The friction at the various parts of the rolling stock
(ii) Friction at the track and
(iii) Air resistance.
The first two components constitute the mechanical resistance component of train resistance. The train resistance depends upon various factors, such
as shape, size and condition of track etc., and is expressed in N/T of the dead weight. For a normal train the value of specific resistance has been 40
to 70 N/T. The general equation for train resistance is given as
R = k1 + k2V + k3V2
where k1, k2 and k3 are constants depending upon the train and the track, R is the resistance in newtons and V is the speed in kmph. The first two
terms represent the mechanical resistance and the last term represents air resistance.
Tractive effort required to overcome the train resistance, Fr = W x r N
where r is the specific resistance in N per T of the dead weight.
Total tractive effort required,
Ft = Fa ± Fg + Fr =277.8 Wα ± 98.1 WG + Wr
+ ve sign for the motion up the gradient and
-ve sign for the motion down the gradient.
