Chapter

Learning: Theories
and Program Design

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 Introduction (1 of 2)
Two conditions necessary for learning to occur:
1. opportunities for trainees to practice
2. meaningful content

For learning to occur it is important to identify

what is to be learned
i.e., to identify learning outcomes

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 Introduction (2 of 2)
Understanding learning outcomes is crucial
they influence the characteristics of the training
environment that are necessary for learning to occur

The design of the training program is also

important for learning to occur

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 What Is Learning?

Learning is a relatively
permanent change in human
capabilities that is not a result
of growth processes.
These capabilities are related
to specific learning outcomes.

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 Learning Outcomes (1 of 3)
Verbal information
Includes names or labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge
Includes specialized knowledge employees need in their
jobs

Intellectual skills
Include concepts and rules
These are critical to solve problems, serve customers, and
create products

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 Learning Outcomes (2 of 3)
Motor skills
Include coordination of physical movements

Attitudes
Combination of beliefs and feeling that pre-dispose a
person to behave a certain way
Important work-related attitudes include job satisfaction,
commitment to the organization, and job involvement

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 Learning Outcomes (3 of 3)
Cognitive strategies
Regulate the process of learning
They relate to the learner’s decision regarding:
what information to attend to (i.e., pay attention to)
how to remember
how to solve problems

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 Learning Theories
Reinforcement Theory Social Learning Theory

Goal Theories

Need Theories

Expectancy Theory

Information Adult Learning Theory

Processing Theory
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 Reinforcement Theory (1 of 2)
Emphasizes that people are motivated to perform
or avoid certain behaviors because of past
outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors
Positive reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Extinction
Punishment

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 Reinforcement Theory (2 of 2)
From a training perspective, it suggests that for
learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior,
or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify
what outcomes the learner finds most positive
(and negative)

Trainers then need to link these outcomes to

learners acquiring knowledge, skills, or changing
behaviors
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 Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio Schedules Interval Schedules
Fixed-ratio schedule Fixed-interval schedule
Continuous reinforcement Variable-interval schedule
Variable-ratio schedule

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 Social Learning Theory (1 of 2)
Emphasizes that people learn by observing other
persons (models) whom they believe are credible
and knowledgeable

Recognizes that behavior that is reinforced or

rewarded tends to be repeated

The models’ behavior or skill that is rewarded is

adopted by the observer

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 Social Learning Theory (2 of 2)
Learning new skills or behavior comes from:
directly experiencing the consequences of using
behavior or skills, or
the process of of observing others and seeing the
consequences of their behavior

Learning is also influenced by a person’s self-

efficacy
self-efficacy is a person’s judgment about whether he
or she can successfully learn knowledge and skills

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 Processes of Social Learning Theory

Motor Match
Motivational
Attention Retention Modeled
Reproduction Processes Performance

• Model Stimuli • Coding • Physical Capability • Reinforcement

• Trainee Characteristics • Organization • Accuracy
• Rehearsal • Feedback

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 Goal Theories

Goal Setting Theory Goal Orientation

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 Goal Setting Theory (1 of 3)
Goal setting theory assumes behavior results
from a person’s conscious goals and intentions

Goals influence behavior by:

directing energy and attention
sustaining effort over time
motivating the person to develop strategies for goal
attainment

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 Goal Setting Theory (2 of 3)
Specific challenging goals result in better
performance than vague, unchallenging goals

Goals lead to high performance only if people are

committed to the goal

Employees are less likely to be committed to a

goal if they believe it is too difficult

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 Goal Setting Theory (3 of 3)
Goal setting theory is used in training program
design

It suggests that learning can be facilitated by

providing trainees with specific challenging goals
and objectives

The influence of goal setting theory can be seen

in the development of training lesson plans
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 Goal Orientation (1 of 3)
Goal orientation – refers to the goals held by a
trainee in a learning situation
Mastery orientation: relates to trying to increase
ability or competence in a task
Performance orientation: refers to a focus of learners
on task performance and how they compare to others

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 Goal Orientation (2 of 3)
Goal orientation affects the amount of effort a
trainee will expend in learning (motivation to
learn)

Learners with a high mastery orientation –

direct greater attention to the task
learn for the sake of learning

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 Goal Orientation (3 of 3)
Learners with a high performance orientation –
direct more attention to performing well
devote less effort to learning

Trainees with a learning orientation exert greater

effort to learn and use more complex learning
strategies than trainees with a performance
orientation

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 Need Theories
Help explain the value that a person places on
certain outcomes

Suggest that to motivate learning:

trainers should identify trainees’ needs, and
communicate how training program content relates to
fulfilling these needs

If the basic needs of trainees are not met, they are

unlikely to be motivated to learn
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 Expectancy Theory (1 of 2)
Expectancy theory suggests that a person’s
behavior is based on three factors:
expectancy
instrumentality
valance

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 Expectancy Theory (2 of 2)
Expectancy theory suggests that learning is most
likely to occur when employees believe:
They can learn the content of the program
(expectancy)
Learning is linked to outcomes such as better job
performance, a salary increase, or peer recognition
(instrumentality)
Employees value these outcomes

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 Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Expectancy Instrumentality Valance

X X = Effort
Effort Performance Performance Outcome Value of Outcome

Does Trainee Have Ability Does Trainee Believe Are Outcomes Related to
to Learn? Training Outcomes Training Valued?
Promised Will Be
Does Trainee Believe He
Delivered?
Can Learn?

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 Adult Learning Theory
It is based on several assumptions:
Adults have the need to know why they are learning
something
Adults have a need to be self-directed
Adults bring more work-related experiences into the
learning situation
Adults enter into a learning experience with a
problem-centered approach to learning
Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and
intrinsic motivators

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 Implications of Adult Learning Theory for
Training:
Design Issue Implications
Self – concept Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction

Experience Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications

Readiness Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and competencies

Time perspective Immediate application of content

Orientation to learning Problem – centered instead of subject – centered

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 Information Processing Theory
These theories give more emphasis to the internal
processes that occur when training content is
learned and retained

Highlights how external events influence learning

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 A Model of Human Information Processing

Stimulus Receptors Sensory Short-Term Long-Term

or Eyes Register Memory Memory
Message Ears
Nose
Skin

Environment
Response Generator
Feedback Effectors
Reinforcement

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 The Learning Process
This material asks three questions:
1. What are the physical and mental processes
involved in learning?
2. How does learning occur?
3. Do trainees have different learning styles?

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 The Learning Process:
Mental and Physical Processes
Expectancy
Gratifying Perception

LEARNING Working Storage

Generalizing

Semantic
Retrieval Encoding
Long –Term
Storage

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 The Learning Process:
Learning Styles
Diverger Converger
Concrete experience Abstract
conceptualization
Reflective observation
Active experimentation

Assimilator
Abstract
Accommodator
conceptualization Concrete experience
Reflective observation Active experimentation

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 Implications of the Learning Process for
Instruction: (1 of 2)
Employees need to know why they should learn
Employees need meaningful training content
Employees need opportunities to practice
Employees need to commit training content to
memory
Employees need feedback

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 Implications of the Learning Process for
Instruction: (2 of 2)
Employees learn through:
Observation
Experience
Interacting with others
Employees need the training program to be
properly coordinated and arranged

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 Training Objectives
Employees learn best when they understand the
objective of the training program
The objective refers to to the purpose and
expected outcome of training activities
Training objectives based on the training needs
analysis help employees understand why they
need the training
Objectives are useful for identifying the types of
training outcomes that should be measured to
evaluate a training program’s effectiveness
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 A training objective has three
components:
1. A statement of what the employee is expected
to do (performance or outcome)
2. A statement of the quality or level of
performance that is acceptable (criterion)
3. A statement of the conditions under which the
trainee is expected to perform the desired
outcome (conditions)

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 Training administration involves: (1 of 2)
Communicating courses and programs to
employees
Enrolling employees in courses and programs
Preparing and processing any pre-training
materials such as readings or tests
Preparing materials that will be used in
instruction
Arranging for the training facility and room
Testing equipment that will be used in instruction
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 Training administration involves: (2 of 2)
Having backup equipment should equipment fail
Providing support during instruction
Distributing evaluation materials
Facilitating communications between trainer and
trainees during and after training
Recording course completion in the trainees’
records or personnel files

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 Internal and External Conditions Necessary for
Learning Outcomes (1 of 2)
Learning Outcome Internal Conditions External Conditions
Verbal Information Previously learned knowledge Repeated practice
and verbal information Meaningful chunks
(Labels, facts, and
propositions) Strategies for coding information Advance organizers
into memory
Recall cues
Intellectual Skills Link between new and previously
(Knowing how) learned knowledge
Cognitive Strategies Recall of prerequisites, similar Verbal description of strategy
tasks, and strategies
(Process of thinking and Strategy demonstration
learning) Practice with feedback
Variety of tasks that provide
opportunity to apply strategy

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 Internal and External Conditions Necessary for
Learning Outcomes (2 of 2)
Learning Outcome Internal Conditions External Conditions
Attitudes Mastery of prerequisites Demonstration by a model
(Choice of personal action) Identification with model Positive learning environment
Cognitive dissonance Strong message from credible
source
Reinforcement
Motor Skills Recall of part skills Practice
(Muscular actions) Coordination program Demonstration
Gradual decrease of external
feedback

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 Considerations in Designing Effective
Training Programs:

Selecting
Selecting and
and preparing
preparing the
the training
training site
site
Selecting
Selecting trainers
trainers
Making
Making the
the training
training site
site and
and instruction
instruction
conducive
conducive toto learning
learning
Program
Program design
design

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 How Trainers Can Make the Training Site
and Instruction Conducive to Learning:
Creating A Learning
Setting
Preparation

Classroom
Management

Engaging Trainees
Managing Group
Dynamics

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 Program Design
Ob t ers
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tive ara
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ver Le
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n P lan
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