MENDELIAN

& MODERN GENETICS

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Genes are the units of
heredity composed of
DNA molecules that are
transferred from parents to
offspring.
All organisms have a set of genes inherited from
the previous generation. Through advancements
in science and technology, you can now
understand how genes are acquired and passed
on from generation to the next. The scientific
study of genes and how they affect heredity is
called genetics.
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 Gregor Mendel and His Works

The field of genetics began with Gregor Johann

Mendel, an Austrian monk, teacher, and biologist.
He discovered the basic principles in the field of
genetics through his garden pea experiments,
which is why he is known as the father of modern
genetics.

His experiments on pea plant led to the discovery

that there are certain traits that can follow
particular patterns of inheritance from one
generation to the next. This led to him
formulating the laws of inheritance – the law of
dominance, law of segregation, and law of
independent assortment.
Gregor Mendel Your Logo or Name Here 3
“Father of Modern Genetics”
Characteristics of Garden Peas studied by Gregor Mendel

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Important Terms
in
Genetics

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 Term Meaning
Allele One of two or more alternative forms of a gene
Dominant Trait Trait that is expressed
F1 Generation “first filial” or first generation of offspring
F2 Generation Generation produced by interbreeding individuals of the F1 generation
Gamete Reproductive cell or sex cell
Genotype Genetic composition of an individual
Heterozygous Organisms that have two different allels for the same trait (example: Tt –
hybrid of a certain trait.)
Homozygous Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular trait (examples: TT
(homozygous dominant) and tt (homozygous recessive)
Phenotype Observable characteristics of an individual
Punnet Square Diagram used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or breeding
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Recessive Trait Trait that is masked in the presence of a dominant trait
Probability and
Genetics

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Whenever Mendel performed a cross with pea plants, he
carefully counted the offspring. With his knowledge in
mathematics, he found out that every time he repeated a
particular cross, he obtained similar results
For example, whenever he crossed two plants that were
heterozygous for stem height, he kept on getting similar
results that three out of four offspring were tall. With
these results, he realized that the principles of probability
could be used in genetics.

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 Probability is the branch of
mathematics that explains the likelihood
that a particular event will occur.
Tossing a coin and rolling a die both demonstrate principles of probability

We can apply the principles of probability in our study of genetics. Keep in

mind that the way the alleles segregate is completely random. WeYour will use
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Punnet Square.
 Punnett Square Experiments
Mendel’s experiments involved the
use of the Punnett square.
The possible gene combinations are
represented inside the square.
Capital letters represent the
dominant alleles, and the lowercase
letters represent the recessive
alleles.

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Monohybrid Cross
A cross between parents that differ in one trait is a
monohybrid cross. The following Punnett square shows a
monohybrid cross between two plants.

For example, the allele that codes for yellow-colored flower

(Y) is dominant over the allele that codes for a green-colored
flower (y). Both parents (represented on the top and on the
left side of the square) contain heterozygous alleles that code
for a yellow-colored flower (Yy). For a monohybrid cross,
there are two kinds of gametes produced in reference to the
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allele being studied – Y and y.
 Y y
YY Yy
Y (yellow) (yellow)

Yy yy
y (yellow) (green)
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As said earlier, each square in the Punnett square
signifies a 25% chance of the genotype and
phenotype of the offspring. Thus, the genotypic
and the phenotypic ratios of the resulting
offspring can be written this way:

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Genotypic ratio (GR) = 1 YY : 2 Yy : 1 yy or 1:2:1

Phenotypic ratio (PR) = 3 yellow : 1 green or 3:1

To perform a monohybrid
cross, follow these steps:
1. Choose the letters or use the given letters in the problem, to represent the
genes of the traits to be crossed. In the given example, Y is used for the yellow
and y is used for the green flower.
Note that capital letters are used for dominant traits, and the lowercase letters
are used for recessive traits.
 
2. Place the gametes on top and the left side of the Punnett square, such that
each allele (Y and y) will fill up one outer box, as shown in the earlier example.

3. Pair each gamete, and write the pairings in the inner squares in the Punnett
square. The combined gametes are the genotypes.
4. Write the phenotype below each genotype. The words “yellow” and “green”
refer to the phenotypes.

5. Identify the genotypic and the phenotypic ratios.

Dihybrid Cross

Two contrasting traits between

parents can also be crossed or
determine the genotype and the
phenotype of their offspring. This can
be solved using a dihybrid cross.
 
 For example, each parent has two sets of genes; with each
gene contain alleles for hair color and eye color.

For the hair color, the allele for black hair (A) is dominant
over the allele for blonde hair (a).

For the eye color, the allele for brown eyes (B) is dominant
over the allele for blue eyes (b).

A father has black hair (Aa) and brown eyes (Bb), and the
mother has black hair (Aa) and brown eyes too (Bb).

Both are heterozygous for the two traits. What are the
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phenotypic and the genotypic ratios?
To find out the answer, you should follow these steps:
 
1. Identify the genotypes of the parents.
Father (AaBb) –
Mother (AaBb) –

2. Determine the possible gamete combinations.

Father -
Mother -
 
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3. Write the possible gamete combinations of
the parents on the top and on the left side of the
square.

AB Ab aB ab

AB
Ab
aB
ab
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4. Pair the gametes inside the boxes.

AB Ab aB ab

AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb

Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb
aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb
ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb
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5. Write the phenotype on each box
 

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 AB Ab aB ab
AABB AABb AaBB AaBb

AB (black hair and

brown eyes)
(black hair and
brown eyes)
(black hair and
brown eyes)
(black hair and
brown eyes)

AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb

Ab (black hair and

brown eyes)
(black hair and
blue eyes)
(black hair and
brown eyes)
(black hair and
blue eyes)

AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb

aB (black hair and

brown eyes)
(black hair and
brown eyes)
(blonde hair and
brown eyes)
(blonde hair and
brown eyes)

AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb

ab (black hair and

brown eyes)
(black hair and
blue eyes)
(blonde hair and (blonde hair and
brown eyes) Your Logo orblue eyes)
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6. Identify the genotypic and the phenotypic ratios.

GR = 1 AABB : 2 AABb : 1 AAbb : 2 AaBB : 4 AaBb :

2 Aabb : 1 aaBB : 2 aaBb: 1 aabb
 
PR = 9 black hair and brown eyes : 3 black hair and blue
eyes : 3 blonde hair and brown eyes : 1 blonde hair and blue
eyes
( 9 : 3 : 3 : 1)

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Mendel’s Laws of
Inheritance
The Law of Segregation
 
 The Law of Segregation
 
Mendel’s law of segregation describes what
happens to the alleles during the formation of
gametes.

According to this law, an individual has pair of

alleles for each trait. During gamete formation, the
alleles in the pair separate, such that each gamete
receives only one allele for the trait.
For example, a pea plant contains a gene for speed shape in which both
alleles code for round. This condition can be represented by RR, which
indicates that the two round seeds may have alleles that code for the round
shape of the seed.

Another pea plant with round seeds may have a different combination of
alleles. In this case, it is represented by Rr, with the capital letter R
representing the allele for the round shape and the lowercase r representing
the allele for the wrinkled shape.

Each parent passes an allele at random to the offspring. It is only upon

gamete formation that the alleles are segregated. This is described in figure
3.4. the parents with the alleles Tt can be seen with gametes segregate into
the uppercase T (tall) and the lowercase t (short).
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Mendel’s Laws of
Inheritance
The Law of Independent Assortment
The law of independent assortment states that alleles segregate independently during the
formation of gametes. The genes do not influence one another on how they are sorted. This
law can be represented by Mendel’s dihybrid experiment.

In the first part, he crossed the plants that have round, yellow peas (represented by the
homozygous genotype RRYY) with plants that have wrinked, gren peas (represented by the
homozygous genotype rryy).

All of the F1 offspring have round, yellow peas (represented by the heterozygous genotype
RrYy). This shows that the alleles that code for the round shape and for the yellow color of
the peas are dominant over the alleles that code for the wrinkled shape and for the green
color of the peas.

However, this part only provides thehybrid plants needed for the next cross. Mendel then
crossed F1 plants to ech other to create the F2 generation of plants. Note that each plant in
the F1 generatin was formed by the fusion of gametes that have oth homozygous alleles
(RRYY and rryy). As a result of his experiment, he found out that the members of the F2
generation have phenotypes not found I the F1 plants. This shows that the alleles that code
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Mendel’s Laws of
Inheritance
The Law of Dominance
Mendel’s third law of inheritance has something to do with dominance. A trait is said to be
dominant if it is expressed in spite of the presence of another allele.

For example, the Rr gene contains a dominant gene for the round seed shape (R) and a
recessive gene for the wrinkled seed shape(r). Thus, the round seed shape is manifested
because it is the dominant allele.

The law of dominance states that some alleles are dominant, whereas others are recessive.

An organism with a dominant allele for a certain trait will always express that trait. However
an organism with a recessive allele for a particular trait will expresses that trait only if the
dominant allele is not present. An example is shown above.

Three-fourths of the offspring have a dominant allele (T), which is why the offspring will
likely to be tall.
Modifications on Mendel’s
Classic Ratios
 Not all patterns of inheritance can be described using Mendel’s
laws. Sometimes, inheritance patterns are more complicated than
simple dominance.

For example, not all offspring express purely dominant and

recessive alleles. Some offspring with heterozygous traits express
traits that are intermediate between the traits of their homozygous
parents.

On the other hand, there are also alleles that are both expressed in
the organism. Some individuals may also have gene that contain more
than two alleles. These modes of inheritance are sometimes called
non-Mendelian genetics.
Incomplete Dominance
 Incomplete dominance happens when one allele is not
complete dominant over the other allele. Incomplete
dominance often shows a heterozygous phenotype that is
intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes.

This means that the traits have blended in the offspring.

For example, a cross between two four-o’clock plants
(Mirabilis) shows an interesting result. If a red-flowered (RR)
plant is crossed with a white0flowered (rr) plant, the resulting
offspring are pink-flowered (Rr) plants.
Codominance
Somewhat similar to incomplete
dominance is the principle of
codominance. In codominance,
both alleles contribute to the
phenotype of an organism.

An example can be observed in

cattle, wherein the allels for red
hair in cattle (R) is codominant
with the allele for white hair (W).
If both alleles are present in the
offspring, a roan or pinkish-
brown appearance shows (RW).
Roan is basically a combination of
both red and white hairs.
 Another notable example of
codominance can be seen in
certain varieties of chickens.

The allele for black feathers

(B) is codominant with the allele
for white feathers (W).

If these alleles are crossed, the

offspring would appear speckled
(BW) with black and white
feathers.
Multiple Alleles

This type of inheritance involves having more than two phenotypes for
a particular trait, which happens when a n organism has more than
two alleles for the trait.

Thus, you can observe a mixture of dominant alleles. For example, the
coat color in rabbits can be determined using four different alleles as
shown below. These four alleles can be combined in different ways.
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 Multiple Alleles

Another good example of

multiple alleles is seen in
the human blood type.
Humans have four
different blood types: A,
B, AB and O .
 
 Note that you have only two of thee alleles in your
genotype. One allele cane from your mother, and the other
came from your father.

Among the three alleles, the allele I for blood type O is

recessive to the alleles for blood types A and B. the different
alleles can have these possible genotypes and phenotypes, as
shown below.

As seen beside, six genotypes and four phenotypes can be

derived from the tree alleles of the human blood type.

There are two possible genotypes each for blood types A and B,
wherein one genotype is homozygous (IAIA or IBIB) and the
other one is heterozygous (IAi or IBi).

Blood type AB, however, contains two different alleles (IAIB),

and blood type O contains two recessive alleles (ii).
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MODERN GENETICS
Pedigree Analysis
Pedigree Analysis

One of the very important tools in studying human

genetics and patterns of inheritance is the pedigree chart.
The pedigree chart is similar to a family tree. It uses
symbols that show one’s family history. It also shows the
family relations and the phenotypes of each member. The
symbols used in creating a pedigree chart are shown
below.
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 Understanding the pedigree chart will help you identify
relevant medical facts about certain traits or diseases, as well as
the family history.

You can use the pedigree chart to note the genetic disorders
that some family members have.

Thus, you can somehow predict if the offspring would have a

good chance of inheriting the genetic disorder if one of the
parents has that trait.
 

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 Thank You!
REPORTED BY :TRISHA LENE E. NOMEL

November 2019