Unit 01

Electronics Components
Charge
Charge is the ability of a particle to attract or to repel

Electrons have negative charge, protons have positive charge

Two electrons and two protons will repel each other, while
an electron and a proton attract each other

Charge is conserved

Electrons will never loose their charge

An electron’s charge is permanent

The unit of charge is the Coulomb, the amount of charge of

an electron is 1.602 x 10-19 Coulomb
Current
Current is the rate of flow of charge

The current I is the amount of charge per unit time that

passes through an imaginary surface that is perpendicular to
the motion of the charges
Q
I   Amperes 
t

The unit of current:

Coulomb
Ampere 
second
Electric current in a conductor
Energy

Energy describes work done

The unit is the joule

The joule is the work done when a force of 1 Newton

displaces an object through a distance of 1 metre

Energy = Force x Distance

1 joule = 1 Newton x 1 metre
Power

Power is the work done in time

The unit is the watt

Energy
Power 
Time
1 joule
1 watt 
1 second
The Volt
The volt is the work done to move a unit of charge around
a circuit

1 volt is the difference in potential energy across a load

which causes 1 joule of energy to be released when a charge
of 1 Coulomb flows through it

1 joule
1 volt 
1 Coulomb
Work done when charge is moved
Electric Power
Q
current : I  produces : Q  I x t
t
E E
voltage : V  results in : V 
Q I xt
E V x I x t
E V xI xt
power : P  gives : P
t t

The equation describing the electric power is:

P V x I
Introducing Ohm’s law: V=RxI

We can express the electric power in terms of circuit

resistance:

P=VxI V=RxI  P=RxIxI

PI xR2

V V
P V x I I P V x
R R

V2
P
R
Sign Convention
Because of historical reasons the conventional current
direction is from plus (+) to minus (-)

The current is the flow of electrons and they flow from

minus (-) to plus (+)
Resistors

Resistors in Series

Putting resistors in series, the total resistor is always larger

R  R1  R2  R3

The current in each resistor is the same

Resistors in Parallel

Putting resistors in parallel, the total resistor is always

smaller than the smallest resistor

1 1 1 1
  
R R1 R2 R3

1
R
1 1 1
 
R1 R2 R3

The voltage over each resistor is the same

1 1 1 1 R2 x R3  R1 x R3  R1 x R2
   
R R1 R2 R3 R1 x R2 x R3

R1 x R2 x R3
R
R2 x R3  R1 x R3  R1 x R2
Resistance

For all passive circuit elements, the static or dc resistance

is positive

The current voltage graph of a positive resistance is linear

The resistance of a tunnel diode is nonlinear

Current-voltage curves
A piece of conducting material of length L [m] and
cross-sectional area A [m2] has a resistance of R []

L
R
A

 m2 
      m is the resistivity
 m
Conductance

The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance,

and is represented by the symbol 

1



Conductance is measured in ohm-1 called a Siemens

Variable Resistors (Potentiometers)
Variable resistors have their value either stamped or painted
onto their bodies

They fall into two categories:

(1) High powered wire wound

(2) Low power carbon film types
High Power Wire-wound Variable Resistors

These devices have large bodies to withstand the heat

generated by large current flows

The conducing tracks are made of resistive wire which is

wound onto a form

A shaft extending out of the device is attached to a wiper

which tracks across the outer edge of the resistive wire,
providing a variable tapping point
High power variable resistor
Low Power Carbon Film Variable Resistors
These resistors have three external leads, the outer two of
a fixed value and a central wiper which varies

They are constructed of a base moulding of insulating

material with a thin film track of carbon coated around the
perimeter and connected at each end to an external terminal

The central terminal is connected to the external variable

shaft and a small metallic wiper which runs across the
carbon track as the shaft is rotated

The device is enclosed in a pressed metallic casing with the

resistive value printed on
Low power variable resistor (pot)
There are two types of low power variable resistors:

Linear potentiometers

Logarithmic potentiometers

The logarithmic potentiometers are used in the

audio industry, because the ear is not linear, it responds in a
logarithmic manner
 Variable Resistor

+ -
The Thermistor
The thermistor is a two-terminal device to have a resistance
that is a strong function of temperature

The resistance RT of a thermistor is given by:

1 1 
A  
 T T0
RT  R0 e 

where A is a constant in Kelvins (K) whose value depends

upon the particular thermistor

R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 (K)

T (K) is the temperature of the thermistor
The constant A depends slightly on temperature

Over a range of 50 0C the equation above would produce a

 3 0C error

For greater accuracy the thermistor should be calibrated

experimentally over the expected range

The resistance of the thermistor decreases with increasing

temperature

Commercial thermistors are made from sintered mixtures

of Mn2O3 and NiO or platinum alloys and are encapsulated
in a thin glass bead with two wire leads
Thermistor
The thermistor takes a certain time to come to equilibrium
if its surrounding temperature is changed

The thermistor time constant is defined as the time required

for the thermistor resistance to change by 63% with 100%
being the total change in resistance for an infinite time
Example
Thermistor with a 10 k resistance at 100 0C
110 k resistance at 30 0C
and a time constant of 100 ms

If suddenly immersed in a 30 0C environment, the resistance

will increase to:
10 k  0.63(110 k  10 k)  10 k  63 k  73 k
Colour Codes

Resistors can be identified using a colour code on the

resistor

The resistance is measured in ohm ()

Colour Value
black 0
brown 1
red 2
orange 3
yellow 4
green 5
blue 6
violet 7
grey 8
white 9
Colour Tolerance
brown 1%
red 2%
gold 5%
silver 10 %
no colour 20 %
Yellow 4; Violet 7; Red 2 and Gold 5%

First number 4; Second number 7; number of zeros 2

Value of resistor: 4700   5%

Kirchhoff’s Law or Rules
Kirchhoff laws govern the operation of all electrical circuits

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

At any instant the algebraic sum of the currents entering a
point in a circuit equals the algebraic sum of the currents
leaving that point

Junction Rule

The sum of the magnitudes of the currents directed into

the junction equals the sum of the magnitudes of the
currents directed out of the junction
I1  I 4  I 2  I 3  I 5
4 A  6 A  3A  5A  2 A
10 A  10 A
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

At any instant the algebraic sum of the emf’s in a closed

loop is equal to the algebraic sum of the pd’s around the
same loop

Loop Rule
Around any closed-circuit, the sum of the potential drops
equals the sum of the potential rises

A potential drop is from plus (+) to minus (-)

A potential rise is from minus (-) to plus (+)
Single loop circuit that contains two batteries and
two resistors
The potential across a resistor is given by Ohm’s law:

V=IxR

Starting at corner A and moving clockwise around the loop

1. A potential drop (+ to - ) of I R = I(12 ) across the

12  resistor
2. A potential drop (+ to - ) of 6.0 V across the 6.0 V battery
3. A potential drop (+ to - ) of I R = I(8 ) across the
8  resistor
4. A potential rise (- to + ) of 24 V across the 24 V battery
We can calculate the current:

(12 ) I  6 V  (8 ) I  24 V
(12 ) I  (8 ) I  18 V
(20 ) I  18 V I  0.9 A
Voltage Divider
Voltage divider circuits employ resistors connected in series

The voltage across each resistor is lower than the supply

voltage

The voltage in question is derived from an equation reading

as follows:

The voltage in question is the resistance in question divided

by the total resistance times the supply voltage

R2
V2  E x
R1  R2
Voltage divider
Current Divider
Current dividers employ parallel connected resistors

The current through each resistor is lower than the supply

current

The current in question is derived from an equation reading

as follows:

The current in question is the other resistance divided by

the total resistance times the supply current
R1
I 2  IT x
R1  R2
Current divider
Derivation of the Formula of the Current Divider
U
U RxI I
R
1 1 1 1 R1  R2 R1 R2
   R
R R1 R2 R R1 R2 R1  R2
U R1 R2
I2 R2 R1  R2 R1
  
IT U R2 R1  R2
R1 R2
R1  R2

R1
I 2  IT x
R1  R2
Thevenin’s Theorem

It is possible to reduce the most complex circuit to a circuit

with a voltage source in series with an equivalent total
resistance

Thevenin’s theorem
We apply Thevenin’s theorem for a voltage divider

The method is only appropriate for constant voltage

sources such as batteries

For any circuit

1. e = the open-circuit voltage VABoc

2. r = VABoc / Isc

The actual circuit and the Thevenin equivalent circuit

produce the same open-circuit voltage and the same short
circuit current
Thevenin equivalent circuit of a voltage divider
For example if Vbb = 12 V, R1 = 6 k, and R2 = 4 k, the
Thevenin equivalent circuit is:
Vbb 12V
e  VABoc  I R2  R2  x 4 k  4.8V
R1  R2 10 k
The Thevenin resistance is:
 Vbb 
  R2
VABoc  R1  R2  R1 R2 (6 k) (4 k)
r     2.4 k
I sc Vbb R1  R2 (6 k  4 k)
R1
Because we have an independent voltage source (battery)
we can mentally shorten out the battery, which puts R1 and
R2 in parallel
Norton’s Theorem

It is possible to reduce the most complex circuit to a circuit

with a current source in parallel with an equivalent total
resistance

Norton’s theorem
The equivalent resistance in Norton’s equivalent circuit is
the same as the equivalent resistance in the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit
R1 R2
r = R1 | | R2 r
R1  R2

The current source has an infinite internal resistance and

puts out a constant current

The ideal constant current source supplies a current of:

VABoc
Is 
r
Norton’s equivalent circuit of a voltage divider
Conductors
A conductor is a material with low resistivity

Most metals are good conductors

Copper or aluminium wires are usually used in electronic

circuits to carry current

Insulators are materials with high resistivity that is used to

prevent current flow

Plastics, rubber, air, mica are good insulators

Germanium and silicon have resistivities that are much
greater than those of metals but much less than those of
insulators

They are called semiconductors

Resistivity values of various materials
Temperature Variations of Resistance

For most metallic conductors, the resistivity increases

slowly with increasing temperature

At higher temperature the thermal motion of the atoms

increases, producing a slightly lower drift speed

The resistance of a metallic conductor depends upon

temperature according to the relation
RT  R0 (1   T )
R0 is the resistance in ohms at a reference temperature T0

T  (T  T0 )
Connectors
Bringing signals in and out of an instrument

Routing signal and dc power around between the various

parts of an instrument

Providing flexibility by permitting circuitboards and larger

modules to be unplugged or replaced

These are all functions of a connector, an essential

ingredient (and usually the most unreliable part) of any
piece of electronic equipment

Connectors come in a variety of sizes and shapes

Single Wire Connectors
The simplest connector is the pin jack or banana jack used
on multimeters, power supplies etc.

Shielded-Cable Connectors

In order to prevent capacitive pickup, signals are piped in

shielded coaxial cables

The most popular is the BNC connector (“baby N”)

It connects with a quarter-turn twist and completes both

the shield (ground) circuit and inner conductor (signal)
circuit simultaneously
BNC connectors from left to right:
A male connector on a cable
A panel-mounted female connector
Two varieties of insulated panel-mounted female connectors
A BNC “T”
Other connectors for use with coaxial cables are:
The TNC connector (like the BNC, but with a threaded
outer shell)

The high-performance but bulky N-type connector

The miniature SMA connector

The MHV connector (a high-voltage version of the BNC

Connector)
Multipin Connectors
The simplest is the 3-wire line cord connector

The D sub-miniature type connector

The Winchester MRA series

The venerable MS-type connector

The flat ribbon-cable mass-termination connector

Multipin connectors from left to right:
D sub-miniature type connector
The venerable MS-type connector
The Winchester MRA type connector with integral securing
jackscrews
A circuit-board-mounting mass-termination connector with
female ribbon connector
Card-Edge Connectors

The card-edge connector is used to make connection to

printed-circuit cards

It mates to a row of gold-plated contacts at the edge of the

card

Card-edge connectors may have from 15 to 100 pins

Breadboards
Breadboards are plastic blocks with rows of holes spaced
to accommodate ICs or other components. They have also
some extra rows for distributing the power supply voltages

Breadboards are intended for testing circuits, not for

constructing permanent or semi-permanent versions

Another form of breadboard is the perf-board, a thin sheet of

laminated insulating material manufactured with regularly
spaced holes, designed to accept little metal pins

After the components are placed on the board, wires are

soldered from pin to pin to complete the circuit
Prototype circuits with discrete components are constructed
on perf-boards
Capacitance
1 q
The electric field due to a point charge is: E 
4  0 r 2

Using the relation between the field and the

potential gradient: dV 1
 q
ds 4  0 r 2

 ds
which may be written: dV  q
4  0 r 2

The potential difference increases linearly with q

The value of the fraction depends only upon the geometry

and is a constant
The geometric constant, which is the ratio between charge
and potential difference, is called the capacitance C
Q
C QCV
V
Capacitance is measured in coulombs per volt

One coulomb per volt is called one farad (F)

A farad is very large, usual units are:

microfarad (F) = 10-6 F or
picofarad (pF) = 10-12 F
Capacitors

Capacitors are made of two thin metal foils separated by an

insulator or dielectric, such as paper or mica

This sandwich is then rolled or folded into a compact size

and covered with an insulating coating

One axial wire lead is attached to each plate

One has to be careful that the dielectric between the two

plates does not break down from too high voltage being
applied across the plates
There is no way direct current can flow through the
capacitor

A capacitor has an infinite dc resistance in the steady state

However, alternating current can pass through the capacitor

As a positive charge surges into the left-hand terminal, the

positive charge on the right-hand plate is repelled towards
the right

One-half cycle later, charge surges into the right-hand

terminal and out of the left-hand terminal
In ceramic and plastic-film capacitors metal-film plates are
directly deposited on the dielectric

Plastic dielectrics have very high resistivity

The large dielectric constant of ceramics provide large

capacitance values

Unfortunately, ceramic capacitors have a rather large

temperature coefficient
Typical capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are made of an oxidized metal foil in
a conducting paste or solution

The thin oxide film is the dielectric between the metal foil
and the solution

Because the film is extremely thin the capacitance is

extremely large

Tantalum and aluminium are used in electrolytic capacitors

Various types of capacitors
In variable capacitors the capacitance is adjusted by turning
a shaft

As the shaft turns, two sets of parallel metal plates mesh,

without touching

The larger the overlap, the higher the capacitance

The stationary set of plates is called the stator,

the rotating set the rotor

The rotor is connected electrically and mechanically to the

shaft, which is connected to the chassis and thus is at
ground
Variable capacitor
Series and Parallel Capacitors

When two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in parallel,

the total capacitance is:
Qtotal
Ctotal 
V
where Qtotal is the total charge on either plate and V is the
voltage across the plates
Qtotal  Q1  Q2

Where Q1 is the charge on C1 and Q2 the charge on C2

 Q1  Q2
Ctotal 
V
From the definition of capacitance Q1 = C1V1 and
Q2 = C2V2 , and because C1 and C2 are in parallel, V1 = V2

C1V  C2V
Ctotal   C1  C2
V

For N capacitors in parallel the total capacitance is:

Ctotal  C1  C2  ......  C N
Connection of two capacitors
When two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series, the
total capacitance is smaller than the smallest capacitor

Because the two capacitors are connected Q1 = Q2

Q Q Q1 Q2
Ctotal   V1  V2 
V (V1  V2 ) C1 C2
Q 1 C1C2
Ctotal   
Q Q 1 1 C  C
  1 2
C1 C2 C1 C2
For N capacitors in series the total capacitance is:
1
Ctotal 
1 1 1
  ..... 
C1 C2 CN

The energy stored in a capacitor is:

1
W  CV 2

The capacitive reactance is:

1
XC 
j C
Inductance
An electric current generates a magnetic field

Two currents separated by a distance exert a force on each

other, caused by the magnetic field

Two parallel conductors with currents in the same direction

attract each other

Two parallel conductors with currents in opposite direction

repel each other
Parallel wires with currents in opposite directions repel each
other, when the currents are in the same direction they attract
each other
The strength of the magnetic field due to the current I in
a long straight wire is:

0
B I
2 r

0 is the permeability of free space

7
 0  4  x 10 T m / A
1 T  10 G
4

T (Tesla) G (Gauss)
Magnetic field in a current carrying wire
The experimental relation giving the magnetic field B at a
point P is called Ampere’s law
 0 l sin 
B I
4 r 2

If you have a coil with an area A the magnetic flux inside

the coil is:
BA

The magnetic field and the magnetic flux are directly

proportional to the current

The proportional constant depends only on the geometry

and is called inductance
 
L
I
The unit of inductance is the henry [H]

Typical units used for inductance are the milli Henry [mH],
which equals 10-3 H, and the micro Henry (H), which
equals 10-6 H

Inductance is best understood from Faraday’s law

Faraday’s law states that whenever a complete circuit loop

experiences a changing magnetic flux, an emf is generated
in the circuit and the magnitude of this emf is given by the
rate of change of the magnetic flux
Faraday’s law is the basis for electric generators which
convert mechanical energy to electric energy

Such generators contain coils of wire rotating in a magnetic

field

As the coil rotates, magnetic flux passing through the coil

varies from a maximum value when the plane of the coil is
perpendicular to the magnetic field to zero when the plane
of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field
Current carrying loop inside a magnetic field
Rectangular coil situated in a constant magnetic field
Maximum torques occurs when the normal to the plane
of the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field
The torque is zero when the normal is parallel to the
magnetic field
Basic components of an electromotor
(a) When a current exists in a coil, the coil experiences a
torque
(b) Because of inertia, the coil continues to rotate when
there is no torque
Electric generator
Inductors
Circuit elements that have inductance are called inductors
or inductances or in some applications, chokes

Inductors are made by winding wire as a coil around a core

The two terminals are the two ends of the coil

The current I flowing through the coil produces a magnetic

flux  through the cross-sectional area of the coil

The inductance in an inductor depends upon the number of

turns on the coil, the size of the coil, and the material inside
the coil
Inductor symbol and inductor
Ferromagnetic materials such as iron in the core increases
the magnetic flux density appreciably

In this way inductances of several hundred henrys are

attained

The cores of iron-core inductors are laminated in order to

interrupt the eddy currents induced in the metal core by the
changing magnetic flux

This reduces the I2R losses in the core

Ferrite cores, made of high-resistivity ferromagnetic

material, are used at high frequencies, because their high
resistance makes eddy currents negligible
Inductors used in electronic circuits
If two inductors of inductance L1 and L2 are connected in
series, the resultant inductance is equal to L1 + L2
dI
V  L  V1  V2
dt
dI1 dI 2
V1  L1 and V2  L2
dt dt
Because L1 and L2 are in series,

dI1 dI 2 dI
I1  I 2  I and  
dt dt dt
dI1 dI 2 dI dI
V  V1  V2  L1  L2  ( L1  L2 )  L
dt dt dt dt
L  L1  L2
Inductors in series and parallel
If two inductors are connected in parallel (this is almost
never done in practice because of magnetic coupling
between the two inductors) the resultant inductance is:
1
L
1 1

L1 L2

This result follows from I = I1 + I2

dI dI1 dI 2
 
dt dt dt
dI V dI1 V1 dI 2 V2
  
dt L dt L1 dt L2
Because L1 and L2 are in parallel, V1 = V2 = V
V V V 1 1 1 1
    L
L L1 L2 L L1 L2 1 1

L1 L2
L1 L2
L
L1  L2
The energy stored in a inductor is:

1
W  L I2
2

The inductive reactance is: X L  j L

Mutual Inductance
A primary coil and a secondary coil are placed close to each
other

The primary coil is connected to an ac generator, the

secondary coil is connected to a voltmeter

The alternating current Ip in the primary coil creates a

magnetic field in the surrounding

A fraction penetrates the secondary coil and produces a

changing magnetic flux

The changing flux induces an emf in the secondary coil

An alternating current Ip in the primary coil creates an
alternating magnetic field, which induces an emf in the
secondary coil
The effect in which a changing current in one circuit induces
an emf in another circuit is called mutual induction
NSS
NSS  M IP M
IP
NS is the number of windings in the secondary coil
S is the magnetic flux in the secondary coil
IP is the alternating current in the primary coil
M is the mutual induction
d S d (NS S ) d ( MI P ) dI P
E S  NS
dt

dt

dt
 M
dt
dI P
S  M
dt
Transformers
A transformer is a device that is used to increase or decrease
an ac voltage

A transformer consists of an iron core on which two coils

are wound: a primary coil with NP turns and a secondary coil
with NS turns

The primary coil is connected to an ac generator

The alternating current in the primary coil establishes a

changing magnetic field in the iron core

Since the magnetic field is changing, the flux through the

primary and secondary coils is also changing
A transformer where the changing flux in the primary coil
induces an emf in the secondary coil
An emf is induced in both coils

In the secondary coil the induced emf S arises from

mutual induction
d
S  NS
dt

In the primary coil the induced emf P arises from

mutual induction
d
P  NP
dt
 The transformer equation is written:
VS N S

VP N P
In a well designed transformer, less than 1% of input energy
is lost in the form of heat

The power delivered to the primary coil is equal to the

power delivered to the secondary coil
I PVP  I SVS
I P VS N S
 
I S VP N P
A transformer that steps up the voltage simultaneously steps
down the current and a transformer that steps down the
voltage simultaneously steps up the current
Types of Windings
There are a selection of transformer windings available

Multiple Tappings
Transformers are wound with one or more tappings along
the length of the secondary winding

This is to allow for a variety of different voltages to be

made available

Transformers are also constructed with a number of

separate windings. The windings can be coupled together
via their external connections
Transformer Types
There are three main areas in the electronic field which
uses transformers

Each application uses different gauge of wires, different

core materials and operates at a different frequency
Transformer types
RLC Circuits
Practical electronic circuits consist of combinations of
resistance, inductance and capacitance as well as transistors

The total impedance Z of an RLC circuit in series is given

by the magnitude of the complex sum of the resistance, the
inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance
1
Z  R  j L 
j C
2
 1 
Z  R   L 
2

 C 
 2
Z Z xZ *

 1  1 
 R  jL    R  jL  
 j C   jC 
  1    1 
 R   jL   
   R  
 j  L  

 j  C j  C
     
2 2
 1   1 
R   jL 
2
 R    L 
2

 j C   C 
2
 1 
R   L 
2

 C 
Series RLC circuit
The magnitude I0 of the current through R, L and C in
series is given by:
V0
I0 
Z
V0
I0 
2
 1 
R   L 
2

 C 

V0 equals the magnitude of the applied voltage

We derive this result by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law

or loop rule
 dI Q
V0 cos t  VR  VL  VC or V0 cos t  IR  L 
dt C

which when differentiated with respect to time yields a

second order differential equation

d 2I dI I dQ
L 2  R   V0 sin t I
dt dt C dt

The current has the same frequency as the voltage

However, the phase of the current may be different from

the phase of the voltage
 I  I 0 cos(t  )

We can solve the differential equation and obtain two

equations that can be solved for I0 and 
 1 
 L   cos   R sin   0
 C 
 1 
I 0  L   sin   I 0 R cos   V0  0
 C 

From the first equation we get:

1
L 
tan   C
R
The second equation yields:
V0
I0 
 1 
R cos    L   sin 
 C 

Using this equation and the impedance triangle we obtain:

V0
I0 
2
 1 
R   L 
2

 C 
Impedance triangle for series RCL circuits