First and second order filter

transfer functions

Lecture 4
13th April 2020
Deepthi M S
Assistant Prof
NIE, Mysuru
 INTRODUCTION
Order of the filter
• First order
• Second order Roll off rate
• Third order • 20 dB/decade
• Fourth order • 40 dB/decade
• ‘N’ th order • 60 dB/decade
• 80 dB/decade
• (20 * N) dB/decade

2
 Higher Order Filter Construction
• Higher-order filters, such as third, fourth, fifth, and so on, are
built simply by using the first and second-order filters.
• Example
• Third order LP filter -> First order LP + Second order LP
• Fourth order LP filter -> Cascading two Second order LP
• There is no limit to the order of the filter, but as the order of the
filter increases the accuracy of actual stopband edge and
theoretical stopband edge frequency decreases.

3
Higher Order Filter Construction

4
Example of cascading of filters to obtain
higher order filter.

5
Example of cascading of filters to obtain
higher order filter.

6
 FIRST ORDER FILTERS
• We know that, general transfer function of N th order filter is
(1)

• The general form for the transfer function of a first order filter
is:
(2)

• There will always be a single pole at s  o .

• The pole must be real (there is only one, so no complex
conjugates are not possible) and it must be negative (for
stability).
•
7
 Continued...
• There will always be a zero, which can be at s  0 , s  
a0
or somewhere else at s   .
a1
• A high-frequency gain that approaches a1 i.e,

(3)

8
 Continued...
• The numerator coefficients, a1 and a0 determine the type of
filter (e.g., low-pass, high-pass, etc.)
• If a1  0 , then Low pass

• If a0  0 , then High pass

• The two most important cases are the zero at infinity, which is
a low-pass filter and the zero at zero, which is the high-pass
filter.

9
 Continued...
• In first order filter transfer functions
1. Low pass filter
2. High pass filter
3. General filter
4. All pass filter

10
 1. Low pass filter
• In the case were a1  0 , we have a low-pass function.
(4)

• Substituting s = jw we get,
ZE

• Taking the magnitude of T(jw)

Pole zero plot POLE

(5)
11
 Continued...
• For low frequencies   0

(6)

• For high frequencies   0

(7)

Magnitude plot
• The equation (7) has a slope of -20 dB/decade

12
 Low pass filter passive realization
• Resistor and capacitor in series — output taken across the
capacitor.
• Use a voltage divider to find the transfer function.

Co
ex
1
0 
• Clearly RCand DC gain is 1 [ T(0) = 1].
• By choosing the “RC time constant” (Remember that?) , we can
define the pass-band of this low-pass filter circuit.
13
Low pass filter active realization

1
•Clearly this is also a low pass filter with 0  R2C and
R
DC gain =  R 2

14
 2. High pass filter
• General first order filter transfer function is ,

• In the above expression if ao  0 , we have

a high pass function.

(8)
Pole zero plot PO
• Substituting s = jw we get,

15
 Continued...
• Taking the magnitude of T(jw)

(9)

• For low frequencies   0 magnitude increases with 

(10)

• For high frequencies   0 magnitude becomes constant

(11)
(11)
• The equ (11) has a slope of +20 dB/decade

16
Magnitude plot
 High pass filter passive realization
• Capacitor and resistor in series — output taken across the
resistor.

• Use a voltage divider to find the transfer function.

• Clearly 0  1
and high frequency gain is 1 i.e, T ()  1 17
RC
High pass filter active realization

1
•Clearly this is also a low pass filter with 0  and
R R1C
DC gain =  R 2

18
 3. General filter
• General first order transfer function,
(12)

• Pole at s  o
• Zero at s   a0
a1
• Magnitude of the filter function is ,

(13)

19
 Continued...
• For low frequencies   0 and   a0
(14)

ao
• For o    ,
a1
(15)

• The equ (14) has -20 dB/decade slope (valid for o    ao )

a1
• For   ao ,
a1

20
Continued...

Magnitude plot
21
 General filter passive realization
• Parallel combination of capacitor and resistor are in series.
Z1

Z2
• Use a voltage divider to find the transfer function.

22
 Continued...
• Comparing equation (16) and (12)

• We get, o 
1
( R1 || R2 )(C1  C2 )

a1
 C1 R1
ao

• DC gain = R1 and High frequency gain = C1

R1  R2 C1  C2

23
 General filter active realization
Z1 Z2

•The transfer function of the circuit is given as,

(Op-amp is in inverting
mode)

24
 Continued...
• On simplification we get,

(17)

• Comparing equation (17) and (12),

• We get, o 
1 , a1  C R
1 1
R2C2 ao

• DC gain = R
 2 and High frequency gain = C1
R1 C2
25
 First order all-pass filter
• Low-pass and high-pass filters—the former attenuate high
frequencies and the latter attenuate low frequencies.
• Band-pass filters,  which attenuate everything above or below
a specified frequency range.
• Band-stop (notch) filters, which attenuate a specified band of
frequencies.
• Another interesting topology of filter is all-pass filter.
• Provides equal magnitude response for all frequencies.

26
 Continued...
• The function of the all-pass filter is to introduce phase shift or
phase delay to the response of the circuit.
• All-pass filters are used in circuits referred to as “phase
equalizers” or “delay equalizers”.
• Applications
• It is used to provide phase equalization in audio circuits.
• It is used in single side band suppressed carrier i.e, SSB-SC
modulation circuits.

27
 Continued...
• A first-order all-pass filter has one pole, but it also has a
symmetrically located zero.
• The transfer function of all-pass filter is given by,

(18)

a1  0

Pole Zero plot

28
 Continued...
• A filter with one pole is referred to as a first-order filter, and
that one pole produces a total phase shift of 90°.
• All-pass filter as one pole and an additional zero, hence it
produces total phase shift of 180°.

Phase plot 29
 All-pass filter passive realization
• Here is the purely passive topology of all-pass filter,

V2
V1

• The output is not referenced to ground, and the gain is 0.5

instead of unity. 
• typical passive-filter problem of relatively low input impedance
and relatively high output impedance is present.
30
 Continued...

(19)

• Comparing equation (18) and (19) we get,

• Gain = -0.5 and o  1
RC

31
 All-pass filter active realization
• The output signal is referenced to ground, and the gain is
unity.
• Output of the op-amp all pass circuit can be obtained using
superposition theorem.(as we did in difference amplifier)

All-pass op-amp circuit

32
Continued...

•From equation (20) we can

conclude that gain of opamp
(20) all pass circuit is unity
33
 Second-Order Filters (Biquadratic Filters)
• Second order filters are filters with a denominator polynomial
that is of second order.
• Key difference between second and first order filter is that the
roots of the second order circuits can be complex whereas all
roots of first order circuits are constrained to real axis.
• Are also the building blocks for higher-order filters.
• Second order filters can be designed as low pass, high pass,
band pass, or notch filters.
• All four types can be expressed in standard transfer function
given below,
(21)

34
 Continued...
• Poles (roots of denominator of T(s) ) are complex are given as,

(22)

• Where o and Q determine the natural modes (poles).

• We are usually interested in the case of complex-conjugate
natural modes, obtained for Q  0.5 .
• The numerator coefficients (ao , a1 , a2 ) determine the type of
filter function (i.e., LP, HP, etc.).

35
 Continued...
• We are usually interested in the case of complex-conjugate
natural modes, obtained for Q  0.5 .
• As Q increases these poles move along the real axis towards
• When Q=0.5, the two poles are identical and are at  o .
• As Q increases above 0.5, the poles leave the real axis and
become complex .

Root Locus of Poles

36
 Parameters Q and o
• Pole frequencyo : radial distance of pole (from origin).
• Pole quality factor Q : distance of the poles from the
j axis.
 Higher Q -> higher selectivity (pole is closer to j axis)
 Q   -> poles are on the j axis.
-> can yield sustained oscillations.
 Q is negative -> poles are in the right
half of s-plane
-> unstable.

Pole Zero plot 37

 Types of second order filter
• Second order filters can be designed as low pass, high pass,
band pass, or notch filters.
• Numerator of transfer function can be expressed as another
polynomial N(s).

(23)

• N(s) is a polynomial in degree  2 .

38
 Continued...
• If N ( s )  ao , the system is a low pass filter with a DC gain ofao
• If N ( s)  a2 s 2 , system is a high pass filter with a high
frequency gain of a2 .
• If N ( s )  a1s , the system is a band pass filter with a
maximum gain of with centre frequency gain a1Q .
o

• If N ( s )  a2 ( s 2  o2 ) , the system is a notch filter with a gain

of a2 .

39
 2nd-order Low-pass Filters
• The transfer function of a second-order low-pass filter is given
by,
(24)

• Where ao , o and Q are the filter parameters and s = jw.

• Two transmission zeros are at s = ∞.
• Poles are complex are given as,

Pole Zero plot 40

 Continued...
•The gain of the second-order low-pass filter is simply the
magnitude of Eq (24), i.e,

(25)

•Where the sketch of Eq (25) is shown in the figure, where the

maximum gain T max and frequency max at which it occurs are
clearly identified. T max

(26)

(27)

(28)
Magnitude plot 41
 Continued...
• Magnitude response
1
 The peak occurs at Q 
2 .
1
 The response obtained for Q  is Butterworth , or
2
maximally flat response.

42
 2nd-order High-pass Filters
• The transfer function of a second-order high-pass filter is
given by,
(26)

• Where a2 , o and Q are the filter parameters and s = jw.

• Two transmission zeros are at s = 0 (dc).
• Poles are complex are given as,

(27)

Pole Zero plot 43

 Continued...
• The gain of the second-order high-pass filter is simply the
magnitude of Eq (26), i.e,
(28)

• Where the sketch of Eq (28) is shown in the figure, where the

maximum gain T max and frequencymax at which it occurs
are clearly identified. T max
(29)

(30)

(31) 44

Magnitude plot
 Continued..
1
• Magnitude response shows a peak for Q .
2

45
 2nd-order Band pass Filters
• The transfer function of a second-order band-pass filter is
given by,
(32)

• Where a1 , o and Q are the filter parameters and s = jw.

• One transmission zero is at s = 0 (dc),
and the other is at s = ∞.
• Poles are complex are given as,

(33)

46
Pole Zero plot
 Continued...
• The gain of the second-order high-pass filter is simply the
magnitude of Eq (32), i.e,
(34)

• Where the sketch of Eq (34) is shown in the figure, where the

maximum gain T max and frequency max  o at which it occurs
are clearly identified.

47
 Continued...
• Magnitude response peaks at   o . The centre frequency is
equal to pole frequency o .
• The selectivity of 2nd-order band pass filter is measured by
3-dB bandwidth.

As Q increases
BW decreases and
band pass filter
become more 48

selective.
Magnitude plot
 Notch Filters
• The transfer function of a second-order notch filter is given by,

• Transmission zeros are located on the jω-axis .

• Poles are complex are given as,

• The gain of the second-order notch filter is

simply the magnitude of Eq (35), i.e,

49
Pole Zero plot
 Continued...
• This is a regular notch filter where pole frequency equal to
zero (notch) frequency

50
Magnitude plot
Low pass notch

Pole Zero plot

51
 Low pass notch

Magnitude plot

52
High pass notch

Pole Zero plot

53
 High pass notch

Magnitude plot

54
 Applications of Notch Filters
• Guitar amplifiers are devices similar to PA speaker systems.
The band reject filters are used in such amplifiers to reduce a
specific humming sound that may occur after the instruments
are plugged.
• Radio signals are used for a variety of purposes and are a
common communication device. The filters are needed to
decrease the static on the radio devices, for enabling clear
communications.
• Attenuate Light Within a Specific Wavelength Range. Ideal for
Spectroscopy Applications

55
General Application of filters example

Typical single-channel electrocardiograph

56
General Application of NOTCH filters example

ECG waves before and after cancelling power line interference with
IIR notch filter
57
 2 order All Pass filter
nd

• Transfer function is given by,

• Two transmission zeros are in the right half of the s-plane, at

the mirror image locations of the poles.
• Magnitude response is constant over all frequencies; the flat
gain is equal to . 𝑝  1 𝑧  1

𝑝  2 𝑧  2
58
Pole Zero plot
Continued...

Magnitude and Phase

plot
59