Functions and

Their Graphs
Chapter 2
Functions

Section 2.1
 Relations
 Relation: A correspondence between
two sets.
 x corresponds to y or y depends on x if
a relation exists between x and y
 Denote by x ! y in this case.
 Relations
 Example.
Person Salary

Melissa
$45,000
John
$40,000
Jennifer
$50,000
Patrick
 Relations
 Example.
Number Number

0
0 1
1 {1
4 2
{2
 Functions
 Function: special kind of relation
 Each input corresponds to precisely one
output
 If X and Y are nonempty sets, a function
from X into Y is a relation that
associates with each element of X exactly
one element of Y
 Functions
 Example.
Problem: Does this relation represent a function?
Answer:
Person Salary

Melissa
$45,000
John
$40,000
Jennifer
$50,000
Patrick
 Functions
 Example.
Problem: Does this relation represent a function?
Answer:
Number Number

0
0 1
1 {1
4 2
{2
 Domain and Range
 Function from X to Y
 Domain of the function: the set X.
 If x in X:
 The image of x or the value of the function at
x: The element y corresponding to x
 Range of the function: the set of all
values of the function
 Domain and Range
 Example.
Problem: What is the range of this function?
Answer:
X Y
{3
{2
0
{1
1
0
4
1
9
2
3
 Domain and Range
 Example. Determine whether the
relation represents a function. If it is a
function, state the domain and range.
Problem:
Relation: f(2,5), (6,3), (8,2), (4,3)g
Answer:
 Domain and Range
 Example. Determine whether the
relation represents a function. If it is a
function, state the domain and range.
Problem:
Relation: f(1,7), (0, {3), (2,4), (1,8)g
Answer:
 Equations as Functions
 To determine whether an equation is a
function
 Solve the equation for y.
 If any value of x in the domain corresponds
to more than one y, the equation doesn’t
define a function
 Otherwise, it does define a function.
 Equations as Functions
 Example.
Problem: Determine if the equation
x + y2 = 9
defines y as a function of x.
Answer:
 Function as a Machine
 Accepts numbers from domain as
input.
 Exactly one output for each input.
Finding Values of a Function
 Example. Evaluate each of the following for the
function
f(x) = {3x2 + 2x
(a) Problem: f(3)
Answer:
(b) Problem: f(x) + f(3)
Answer:
(c) Problem: f({x)
Answer:
(d) Problem: {f(x)
Answer:
(e) Problem: f(x+3)
Answer:
Finding Values of a Function

 Example. Evaluate the difference

quotient
of the function
Problem: f(x) = { 3x2 + 2x.
Answer:
Implicit Form of a Function
 A function given in terms of x and
y is given implicitly.
 If we can solve an equation for y
in terms of x, the function is given
explicitly
Implicit Form of a Function
 Example. Find the explicit form of the
implicit function.

(a) Problem: 3x + y = 5

Answer:

(b) Problem: xy + x = 1

Answer:
 Important Facts
 For each x in the domain of f, there is
exactly one image f(x) in the range
 An element in the range can result
from more than one x in the domain
 We usually call x the independent
variable
 y is the dependent variable
 Finding the Domain
 If the domain isn’t specified, it will
always be the largest set of real
numbers for which f(x) is a real
number
 We can’t take square roots of negative
numbers (yet) or divide by zero
 Finding the Domain
 Example. Find the domain of each
of the following functions.
(a) Problem: f(x) = x2 { 9
Answer:
(b) Problem:
Answer:
(c) Problem:
Answer:
 Finding the Domain
 Example. A rectangular garden has a
perimeter of 100 feet.
(a) Problem: Express the area A of the
garden as a function of the width w.

Answer:

(b) Problem: Find the domain of A(w)

Answer:
 Operations on Functions
 Arithmetic on functions f and g
 Sum of functions:
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
 Difference of functions:
(f { g)(x) = f(x) { g(x)
 Domains: Set of all real numbers in the
domains of both f and g.
 For both sum and difference
 Operations on Functions
 Arithmetic on functions f and g
 Product of functions f and g is
(f ¢ g)(x) = f(x) ¢ g(x)
 The quotient of functions f and g is
f  f (x)
 ( x ) 
g g( x )
 Domain of product: Set of all real numbers in
the domains of both f and g
 Domain of quotient: Set of all real numbers in
the domains of both f and g with g(x)  0
 Operations on Functions
 Example. Given f(x) = 2x2 + 3 and
g(x) = 4x3 + 1.
(a) Problem: Find f+g and its domain
Answer:

(b) Problem: Find f { g and its domain

Answer:
 Operations on Functions
 Example. Given f(x) = 2x2 + 3 and
g(x) = 4x3 + 1.
(c) Problem: Find f¢g and its domain
Answer:

(d) Problem: Find f/g and its domain

Answer:
 Key Points
 Relations
 Functions
 Domain and Range
 Equations as Functions
 Function as a Machine
 Finding Values of a Function
 Implicit Form of a Function
 Important Facts
 Finding the Domain
 Key Points (cont.)
 Operations on Functions
The Graph of a
Function
Section 2.2
 Vertical-line Test
 Theorem. [Vertical-Line Test]
A set of points in the xy-plane is the
graph of a function if and only if every
vertical line intersects the graphs in at
most one point.
 Vertical-line Test
 Example.
Problem: Is the graph that of a function?
Answer: 6

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2

-4

-6
 Vertical-line Test
 Example.
Problem: Is the graph that of a function?
Answer: 6

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2

-4

-6
 Finding Information From
Graphs
 Example. Answer the
questions about the graph.  0,4


 
4
(a) Problem: Find f(0)
Answer:
(b) Problem: Find f(2)
Answer:
 
-4
1,2
4
2, 



5


-2
2 1,2

2
4
2, 



5


(c) Problem: Find the domain

-2
Answer:
(d) Problem: Find the range
-4

Answer:
 Finding Information From
Graphs
 Example. Answer the
questions about the graph.  0,4


 
4
(e) Problem: Find the
x-intercepts:
Answer:
(f) Problem: Find the
 
-4
1,2
4
2, 



5


-2
2 1,2

2
4
2, 



5


4
y-intercepts:
Answer: -2

-4
 Finding Information From
Graphs
 Example. Answer the
questions about the graph.  0,4


 
4
(g) Problem: How often does

 
the line y = 3 intersect the
graph? 1,2 2 1,2
4 4
Answer: 2, 


 2, 



5 5
(h) Problem: For what values -4 -2 2 4
of x does f(x) = 2?
Answer: -2

(i) Problem: For what values

of x is f(x) > 0? -4

Answer:
 Finding Information From
Formulas
 Example. Answer the following questions
for the function
f(x) = 2x2 { 5
(a) Problem: Is the point (2,3) on the graph of
y = f(x)?
Answer:
(b) Problem: If x = {1, what is f(x)? What is the
corresponding point on the graph?
Answer:
(c) Problem: If f(x) = 1, what is x? What is (are)
the corresponding point(s) on the graph?
Answer:
 Key Points
 Vertical-line Test
 Finding Information From Graphs
 Finding Information From Formulas
Properties of
Functions
Section 2.3
 Even and Odd Functions
 Even function:
 For every number x in its domain, the
number {x is also in the domain
 f({x) = f(x)
 Odd function:
 For every number x in its domain, the
number {x is also in the domain
 f({x) = {f(x)
Description of Even and Odd
Functions
 Even functions:
 If (x, y) is on the graph, so is ({x, y)
 Odd functions:
 If (x, y) is on the graph, so is ({x, {y)
Description of Even and Odd
Functions
 Theorem.
A function is even if and only if its
graph is symmetric with respect to the
y-axis.
A function is odd if and only if its
graph is symmetric with respect to the
origin.
 Description of Even and Odd
Functions
 Example.
Problem: Does 4

the graph
represent a 2

function which
is even, odd, or -4 -2 2 4

neither?
-2

Answer:
-4
 Description of Even and Odd
Functions
 Example.
Problem: Does 4

the graph
represent a 2

function which
is even, odd, or -4 -2 2 4

neither?
-2

Answer:
-4
 Description of Even and Odd
Functions
 Example.
Problem: Does 4

the graph
represent a 2

function which
is even, odd, or -4 -2 2 4

neither?
-2

Answer:
-4
 Identifying Even and Odd
Functions from the Equation
 Example. Determine whether the
following functions are even, odd or
neither.
(a) Problem:
Answer:
(b) Problem: g(x) = 3x2 { 4
Answer:
(c) Problem:
Answer:
 Increasing, Decreasing and
Constant Functions
 Increasing function (on an open interval I):
 For any choice of x1 and x2 in I, with
x1 < x2, we have f(x1) < f(x2)
 Decreasing function (on an open interval I)
 For any choice of x1 and x2 in I, with
x1 < x2, we have f(x1) > f(x2)
 Constant function (on an open interval I)
 For all choices of x in I, the values f(x) are equal.
Increasing, Decreasing and
Constant Functions
 Increasing, Decreasing and
Constant Functions
 Example. Answer the
questions about the 6

function shown.
4
(a) Problem: Where is the
function increasing?
2
Answer:
(b) Problem: Where is the -6 -4 -2 2 4 6
function decreasing?
-2
Answer:
(c) Problem: Where is the -4
function constant
Answer: -6
 Increasing, Decreasing and
Constant Functions
WARNING!
 Describe the behavior 6

of a graph in terms of 4
its x-values.
 Answers for these 2

questions should be
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
open intervals.
-2

-4

-6
 Local Extrema
 Local maximum at c:
 Open interval I containing x so that, for all
x · c in I, f(x) · f(c).
 f(c) is a local maximum of f.
 Local minimum at c:
 Open interval I containing x so that, for all
x · c in I, f(x) ¸ f(c).
 f(c) is a local minimum of f.
 Local extrema:
 Collection of local maxima and minima
 Local Extrema
 For local maxima:
 Graph is increasing to the left of c
 Graph is decreasing to the right of c.

 For local minima:

 Graph is decreasing to the left of c
 Graph is increasing to the right of c.
 Local Extrema
 Example. Answer the
questions about the
given graph of f. 6

4
(a) Problem: At which
number(s) does f have a 2

local maximum?
-7.5 -5 -2.5 2.5 5 7.5
Answer: -2

(b) Problem: At which -4

number(s) does f have a
-6
local minimum?
Answer:
 Average Rate of Change
 Slope of a line can be interpreted as
the average rate of change
 Average rate of change: If c is in the
domain of y = f(x)

 Also called the difference quotient of f at

c
 Average Rate of Change
 Example. Find the average rates of
change of

(a) Problem: From 0 to 1.

Answer:
(b) Problem: From 0 to 3.
Answer:
(c) Problem: From 1 to 3:
Answer:
 Secant Lines
 Geometric interpretation to the
average rate of change
 Label two points (c, f(c)) and (x, f(x))
 Draw a line containing the points.
 This is the secant line.

 Theorem. [Slope of the Secant Line]

The average rate of change of a
function equals the slope of the secant
line containing two points on its graph
Secant Lines
 Secant Lines
 Example. 15

Problem: Find an 12.5

equation of the 10

secant line to
7.5

containing (0, f(0)) 2.5

and (5, f(5)) -7.5 -5 -2.5 2.5 5 7.5

Answer: -2.5

-5
 Key Points
 Even and Odd Functions
 Description of Even and Odd Functions
 Identifying Even and Odd Functions
from the Equation
 Increasing, Decreasing and Constant
Functions
 Local Extrema
 Average Rate of Change
 Key Points (cont.)
 Secant Lines
Linear Functions
and Models
Section 2.4
 Linear Functions
 Linear function:
 Function of the form f(x) = mx + b
 Graph: Line with slope m and y-intercept b.
 Theorem. [Average Rate of Change of
Linear Function]
Linear functions have a constant average
rate of change. The constant average rate of
change of f(x) = mx + b is
 Linear Functions
 Example.
10
Problem: Graph the
linear function 7.5

f(x) = 2x { 5 5

Answer: 2.5

-10 -5 5 10

-2.5

-5

-7.5

-10
 Application: Straight-Line
Depreciation
 Example. Suppose that a company has
just purchased a new machine for its
manufacturing facility for $120,000.
The company chooses to depreciate
the machine using the straight-line
method over 10 years.
For straight-line depreciation, the
value of the asset declines by a fixed
amount every year.
 Application: Straight-Line
Depreciation
 Example. (cont.)
(a) Problem: Write a linear function that
expresses the book value of the machine
as a function of its age, x
Answer:
(b) Problem: Graph the linear function
140000
Answer: 120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-20000
-40000
 Application: Straight-Line
Depreciation
 Example. (cont.)
(c) Problem: What is the book value of the
machine after 4 years?
Answer:
(d) Problem: When will the machine be
worth $20,000?
Answer:
 Scatter Diagrams
 Example. The amount of money that a
lending institution will allow you to
borrow mainly depends on the interest
rate and your annual income.

The following data represent the

annual income, I, required by a bank
in order to lend L dollars at an
interest rate of 7.5% for 30 years.
 Scatter Diagrams
Annual Income, Loan Amount,
 Example. (cont.) I ($) L ($)
15,000 44,600
20,000 59,500
25,000 74,500
30,000 89,400
35,000 104,300
40,000 119,200
45,000 134,100
50,000 149,000
55,000 163,900
60,000 178,800
65,000 193,700
70,000 208,600
 Scatter Diagrams
 Example. (cont.)
Problem: Use a graphing utility to draw a
scatter diagram of the data.
Answer:
 Linear and Nonlinear
Relationships
1 0 .0 1 5 .0
7 .0

8 .0

6 .0

1 0 .0

6 .0

5 .0

4 .0

5 .0

2 .0

4 .0

0 .0 0 .0

-2 .5 -2 -1 .5 -1 -0 .5 0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5 -2 .5 -2 -1 .5 -1 -0 .5 0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5

3 .0

-2 .0

-5 .0

-4 .0

2 .0

-6 .0

-1 0 .0

1 .0

-8 .0

-1 0 .0 0 .0 -1 5 .0

-2 .5 -2 -1 .5 -1 -0 .5 0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5

Linear Nonlinear Linear

1 0 .0

8 .0 1 5 .0

9 .0

6 .0

8 .0

1 0 .0

4 .0
7 .0

6 .0
2 .0

5 .0

5 .0

0 .0

-2 .5 -2 -1 .5 -1 -0 .5 0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5

4 .0

-2 .0
0 .0

-2 .5 -2 -1 .5 -1 -0 .5 0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5

3 .0

-4 .0

2 .0

-5 .0

-6 .0

1 .0

-8 .0

0 .0 -1 0 .0

-2 .5 -2 -1 .5 -1 -0 .5 0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5

-1 0 .0

-1 2 .0

-1 5 .0

Nonlinear Linear Nonlinear

 Line of Best Fit
 For linearly related scatter diagram
 Line is line of best fit.
 Use graphing calculator to find

 Example.
(a) Problem: Use a graphing utility to find
the line of best fit to the data in the last
example.
Answer:
 Line of Best Fit
 Example. (cont.)
(b) Problem: Graph the line of best fit from
the last example on the scatter diagram.
Answer:
 Line of Best Fit
 Example. (cont.)
(c) Problem: Determine the loan amount
that an individual would qualify for if
her income is $42,000.
Answer:
 Direct Variation
 Variation or proportionality.
 y varies directly with x, or is directly
proportional to x:
 There is a nonzero number such that
y = kx.
 k is the constant of proportionality.
 Direct Variation
 Example. Suppose y varies directly
with x. Suppose as well that y = 15
when x = 3.
(a) Problem: Find the constant of
proportionality.
Answer:
(b) Problem: Find x when y = 124.53.
Answer:
 Key Points
 Linear Functions
 Application: Straight-Line
Depreciation
 Scatter Diagrams
 Linear and Nonlinear Relationships
 Line of Best Fit
 Direct Variation
Library of Functions;
Piecewise-defined
Functions

Section 2.5
 Linear Functions
 f(x) = mx+b, m and b a
real number
 Domain: ({1, 1)
 Range: ({1, 1)
unless m = 0
 Increasing on ({1, 1)
(if m > 0)
 Decreasing on ({1, 1)
(if m < 0)
 Constant on ({1, 1)
(if m = 0)
 Constant Function
 f(x) = b, b a real number
 Special linear functions
 Domain: ({1, 1)
 Range: fbg
 Even/odd/neither: Even
(also odd if b = 0)
 Constant on ({1, 1)
 x-intercepts: None
(unless b = 0)
 y-intercept: y = b.
 Identity Function
 f(x) = x
 Special linear function
 Domain: ({1, 1)
 Range: ({1, 1)
 Even/odd/neither: Odd
 Increasing on ({1, 1)
 x-intercepts: x = 0
 y-intercept: y = 0.
 Square Function
 f(x) = x2
 Domain: ({1, 1)
 Range: [0, 1)
 Even/odd/neither: Even
 Increasing on (0, 1)
 Decreasing on ({1, 0)
 x-intercepts: x = 0
 y-intercept: y = 0.
 Cube Function
 f(x) = x3
 Domain: ({1, 1)
 Range: ({1, 1)
 Even/odd/neither: Odd
 Increasing on ({1, 1)
 x-intercepts: x = 0
 y-intercept: y = 0.
 Square Root Function

 Domain: [0, 1)
 Range: [0, 1)
 Even/odd/neither:
Neither
 Increasing on (0, 1)
 x-intercepts: x = 0
 y-intercept: y = 0
 Cube Root Function

 Domain: ({1, 1)
 Range: ({1, 1)
 Even/odd/neither: Odd
 Increasing on ({1, 1)
 x-intercepts: x = 0
 y-intercept: y = 0
 Reciprocal Function

 Domain: x  0
 Range: x  0
 Even/odd/neither:
Odd
 Decreasing on
({1, 0) [ (0, 1)
 x-intercepts: None
 y-intercept: None
 Absolute Value Function
 f(x) = jxj
 Domain: ({1, 1)
 Range: [0, 1)
 Even/odd/neither: Even
 Increasing on (0, 1)
 Decreasing on ({1, 0)
 x-intercepts: x = 0
 y-intercept: y = 0
 Absolute Value Function
 Can also write the absolute value
function as

 This is a piecewise-defined function.

 Greatest Integer Function
 f(x) = int(x)
 greatest integer less
than or equal to x
 Domain: ({1, 1)
 Range: Integers (Z)
 Even/odd/neither:
Neither
 y-intercept: y = 0
 Called a step
function
Greatest Integer Function
Piecewise-defined Functions
 Example. We can
define a function
differently on
different parts of its
domain. 8

(a) Problem: Find f({2) 6

Answer:
4
(b) Problem: Find f({1)
Answer: 2

(c) Problem: Find f(2)

-7.5 -5 -2.5 2.5 5 7.5
Answer: -2
(d) Problem: Find f(3)
-4
Answer:
-6

-8
 Key Points
 Linear Functions
 Constant Function
 Identity Function
 Square Function
 Cube Function
 Square Root Function
 Cube Root Function
 Reciprocal Function
 Absolute Value Function
 Key Points (cont.)
 Greatest Integer Function
 Piecewise-defined Functions
Graphing
Techniques:
Transformations
Section 2.6
 Transformations
 Use basic library of functions and
transformations to plot many other
functions.
 Plot graphs that look “almost” like
one of the basic functions.
 Shifts
 Example.
Problem: Plot f(x) = x3, g(x) = x3 { 1 and
h(x) = x3 + 2 on the same axes
4

Answer: 3

-4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
 Shifts
 Vertical shift:
 A real number k is added to the right
side of a function y = f(x),
 New function y = f(x) + k

 Graph of new function:

 Graph of f shifted vertically up k units
(if k > 0)
 Down jkj units (if k < 0)
 Shifts
 Example.
4
Problem: Use the
graph of f(x) = jxj 3

to obtain the graph 2

of g(x) = jxj + 2 1

Answer:
-4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
 Shifts
 Example.
Problem: Plot f(x) = x3, g(x) = (x { 1)3 and
h(x) = (x + 2)3 on the same axes
4

Answer: 3

-4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
 Shifts
 Horizontal shift:
 Argument x of a function f is replaced by
x { h,
 New function y = f(x { h)

 Graph of new function:

 Graph of f shifted horizontally right h units
(if h > 0)
 Left jhj units (if h < 0)

 Also y = f(x + h) in latter case

 Shifts
 Example.
4
Problem: Use the
graph of f(x) = jxj 3

to obtain the graph 2

of g(x) = jx+2j 1

Answer:
-4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
 Shifts
 Example.
4
Problem: The graph of
3
a function y = f(x) is
2
given. Use it to plot
g(x) = f(x { 3) + 2 1

Answer: -4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
Compressions and Stretches
 Example.
Problem: Plot f(x) = x3, g(x) = 2x3 and
on the same axes
4

Answer: 3

-4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
Compressions and Stretches
 Vertical compression/stretch:
 Right side of function y = f(x) is
multiplied by a positive number a,
 New function y = af(x)

 Graph of new function:

 Multiply each y-coordinate on the graph of
y = f(x) by a.
 Vertically compressed (if 0 < a < 1)

 Vertically stretched (if a > 1)

Compressions and Stretches
 Example. 4

Problem: Use the 3

graph of f(x) = x2 to 2

obtain the graph of 1

g(x) = 3x2
Answer: -4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
Compressions and Stretches
 Example.
Problem: Plot f(x) = x3, g(x) = (2x)3
and on the same axes
4

Answer: 3

-4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
Compressions and Stretches
 Horizontal compression/stretch:
 Argument x of a function y = f(x) is
multiplied by a positive number a
 New function y = f(ax)

 Graph of new function:

 Divide each x-coordinate on the graph of
y = f(x) by a.
 Horizontally compressed (if a > 1)

 Horizontally stretched (if 0 < a < 1)

Compressions and Stretches
 Example. 4

Problem: Use the 3

graph of f(x) = x2 to 2

obtain the graph of 1

g(x) = (3x)2
Answer: -4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
Compressions and Stretches
 Example. 4

Problem: The graph of 3

a function y = f(x) is 2

given. Use it to plot 1

g(x) = 3f(2x)
Answer: -4 -2

-1
2 4

-2

-3

-4
 Reflections
 Example.
Problem: f(x) = x3 + 1 and
g(x) = {(x3 + 1) on the same axes4

Answer: 3

-4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
 Reflections
 Reflections about x-axis :
 Right side of the function
y = f(x) is multiplied by {1,
 New function y = {f(x)

 Graph of new function:

 Reflection about the x-axis of the graph of
the function y = f(x).
 Reflections
 Example.
Problem: f(x) = x3 + 1 and
g(x) = ({x)3 + 1 on the same axes
4

Answer: 3

-4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
 Reflections
 Reflections about y-axis :
 Argument of the function
y = f(x) is multiplied by {1,
 New function y = f({x)

 Graph of new function:

 Reflection about the y-axis of the graph of
the function y = f(x).
 Summary of
Transformations
 Summary of
Transformations
 Summary of
Transformations
 Summary of Transformations
 Example.
Problem: Use transformations to graph the
function
4
Answer:
3

-4 -2 2 4

-1

-2

-3

-4
 Key Points
 Transformations
 Shifts
 Compressions and Stretches
 Reflections
 Summary of Transformations
Mathematical
Models: Constructing
Functions

Section 2.7
 Mathematical Models
 Example.
Problem: The volume V of a right circular
cylinder is V = ¼r2h. If the height is three
times the radius, express the volume V as
a function of r.
Answer:
 Mathematical Models
 Example. Anne has 5000 feet of
fencing available to enclose a
rectangular field. One side of the field
lies along a river, so only three sides
require fencing.
(a) Problem: Express the area A of the
rectangle as a function of x, where x is
the length of the side parallel to the river.
Answer:
 Mathematical Models
 Example (cont.)
(b) Problem: Graph
A = A(x) and find 3.510
6

what value of x 310

6

makes the area 2.510

6

6
largest. 210

1.5106
Answer: 110
6

(c) Problem: What 500000

value of x makes 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

the area largest?

Answer:
 Key Points
 Mathematical Models