Chapter 4:

Network Access

Introduction to Networks

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4.4 Media Access Control

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Chapter 4
4.1 Physical Layer Protocols
4.2 Network Media
4.3 Data Link Layer Protocols
4.4 Media Access Control
4.5 Summary

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4.1 Physical Layer Protocols

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Getting it Connected
Connecting to the Network

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Purpose of the Physical Layer
The Physical Layer

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Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Media

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Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Standards

Standard
Networking Standards
Organization
• ISO 8877: Officially adopted the RJ connectors (e.g., RJ-11, RJ-45)
ISO • ISO 11801: Network cabling standard similar to EIA/TIA 568.
• TIA-568-C: Telecommunications cabling standards, used by nearly all
voice, video and data networks.
• TIA-569-B: Commercial Building Standards for Telecommunications
EIA/TIA Pathways and Spaces
• TIA-598-C: Fiber optic color coding
• TIA-942: Telecommunications Infrastructure Standard for Data Centers

ANSI • 568-C: RJ-45 pinouts. Co-developed with EIA/TIA

ITU-T • G.992: ADSL

• 802.3: Ethernet
IEEE • 802.11: Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi-Fi certification)
• 802.15: Bluetooth

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Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
Physical Frame Encoding
Media Signalling Method
Components Technique
• UTP • Manchester Encoding • Changes in the
• Coaxial • Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) electromagnetic field
• Connectors techniques • Intensity of the
Copper • NICs • 4B/5B codes are used with electromagnetic field
Cable • Ports Multi-Level Transition Level 3 • Phase of the
• Interfaces (MLT-3) signaling electromagnetic
• 8B/10B wave
• PAM5
• Single-mode • Pulses of light • A pulse equals 1.
Fiber • Wavelength multiplexing • No pulse is 0.
• Multimode Fiber using different colors
Fiber Optic • Connectors
Cable • NICs
• Interfaces
• Lasers and LEDs
• Photoreceptors
• Access Points • DSSS (direct-sequence • Radio waves
Wireless • NICs spread-spectrum)
Media • Radio • OFDM (orthogonal frequency
• Antennae division multiplexing)

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Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Bandwidth

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Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Throughput

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4.2 Network Media

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About Cables

 Cables are the backbone of a network; all data/info runs through

cables either in the form of Radio Frequency (RF) via coaxial or
twisted pair or in the form of light via fiber optic.

 Q: How to choose the right cable?

A: Based on your network needs consider the following factors:
- Type of data to be transferred and security issues
- Cost (cabling could take 25% - 40% of total network cost)
- Installation and Maintenance (how easy?)
- Reliability and speed
- Distance affect in:
1- Signal strength and quality (Repeaters may be used!)
2- Possibility of packet collision (Token ring Vs Logical Bus)
3- Possibility of RF noise is likely (long antenna)

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Copper Wires
 Conventional computer network use wires as the primary medium
Copper used almost exclusively because its low resistance

 Network wire is chosen to minimize interference

 Interference arises because wire emit a small amount of

electromagnetic energy, which can travel through the air

 Whenever it encounters another wire, an electromagnetic wave

generates a small electric current in the wire. When two wires are
placed close together and in parallel, a strong signal sent on one wire
will generate a similar signal on the other.

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14 14
Copper Cabling
Characteristics of Copper Media

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Copper Cabling
Copper Media

Unshielded Twisted Shielded Twisted

Pair (UTP) Cable Pair (STP) Cable

Coaxial Cable

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Copper Cabling
UTP Cable

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Copper Cabling
STP Cable

Braided or Foil Shield

Foil Shields

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Copper Cabling
Coaxial Cable

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UTP Cabling
Properties of UTP Cabling
UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of RFI.
Instead, cable designers have discovered that they can limit the
negative effect of crosstalk by:
 Cancellation
 Varying the number of twists per wire pair

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UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards

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UTP Cabling
UTP Connectors

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UTP Cabling
Types of UTP Cable

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Fiber Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:
 Enterprise Networks
 Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) and Access Networks
 Long-Haul Networks
 Submarine Networks

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Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber Media Cable Design

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Fiber Optic Cabling
Types of Fiber Media

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Fiber Optic Cabling
Network Fiber Connectors

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Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper
Implementation Issues Copper Media Fibre Optic

Bandwidth Supported 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps 10 Mbps – 100 Gbps

Relatively short Relatively High

Distance (1 – 100 meters) (1 – 100,000 meters)

High
Immunity To EMI And RFI Low
(Completely immune)

High
Immunity To Electrical Hazards Low
(Completely immune)

Media And Connector Costs Lowest Highest

Installation Skills Required Lowest Highest

Safety Precautions Lowest Highest

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Wireless Media
Properties of Wireless Media
Wireless does have some areas of concern including:
 Coverage area
 Interference
 Security

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Wireless Media
Types of Wireless Media
• IEEE 802.11 standards
• Commonly referred to as Wi-Fi.
• Uses CSMA/CA
• Variations include:
• 802.11a: 54 Mbps, 5 GHz
• 802.11b: 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
• 802.11g: 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
• 802.11n: 600 Mbps, 2.4 and 5 GHz
• 802.11ac: 1 Gbps, 5 GHz
• 802.11ad: 7 Gbps, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz

• IEEE 802.15 standard

• Supports speeds up to 3 Mb/s
• Provides device pairing over distances from 1 to 100
meters.

• IEEE 802.16 standard

• Provides speeds up to 1 Gbps
• Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide
wireless broadband access.

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Wireless Media
802.11 Wi-Fi Standards

Maximum Backwards
Standard Frequency
Speed Compatible

802.11a 54 Mbps 5 GHz No

802.11b 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz No

802.11g 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz 802.11b

802.11n 600 Mbps 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz 802.11b/g

1.3 Gbps 2.4 GHz and 5.5

802.11ac (1300 Mbps) GHz
802.11b/g/n

7 Gbps 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz and

802.11ad (7000 Mbps) 60 GHz
802.11b/g/n/ac

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Wireless Transmission

Electromagnetic Spectrum »
Radio Transmission »
Microwave Transmission »
Light Transmission »
Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber »

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Electromagnetic Spectrum
Different bands have different uses:
Radio: wide-area broadcast; Infrared/Light: line-of-sight
Microwave: LANs and 3G/4G; Networking focus

Microwave

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Radio Transmission

Radio signals penetrate buildings well and propagate for

long distances with path loss

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Microwave Transmission
 Microwaves have much bandwidth and are widely used
indoors (WiFi) and outdoors (3G, satellites)
Signal is attenuated/reflected by everyday objects
Strength varies with mobility due multipath fading, etc.

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Light Transmission

Line-of-sight light (no fiber) can be used for links

Light is highly directional, has much bandwidth
Use of LEDs/cameras and lasers/photodetectors

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Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber

Wireless:
+ Easy and inexpensive to deploy
+ Naturally supports mobility
+ Naturally supports broadcast
Transmissions interfere and must be managed
Signal strengths hence data rates vary greatly
Wires/Fiber:
+ Easy to engineer a fixed data rate over point-to-point links
Can be expensive to deploy, esp. over distances
Doesn’t readily support mobility or broadcast

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Communication Satellites

Satellites are effective for broadcast distribution

and anywhere/anytime communications
Kinds of Satellites »
Geostationary (GEO) Satellites »
Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites »
Satellites vs. Fiber »

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Kinds of Satellites
Satellites and their properties vary by altitude:
Geostationary (GEO), Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO), and Low-
Earth Orbit (LEO)

Sats needed for

global coverage

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Low-Earth Orbit Satellites

Systems such as Iridium use many low-latency satellites

for coverage and route communications via them

The Iridium satellites form

six necklaces around the
earth.
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Satellite vs. Fiber

Satellite:
+ Can rapidly set up anywhere/anytime communications (after
satellites have been launched)
+ Can broadcast to large regions
Limited bandwidth and interference to manage
Fiber:
+ Enormous bandwidth over long distances
Installation can be more expensive/difficult

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Introduction
 Under simplest conditions, medium can carry only one signal
at any moment in time
 For multiple signals to share a medium, medium must
somehow be divided, giving each signal a portion of the total
bandwidth
 Current techniques include:
Frequency division multiplexing
Time division multiplexing
Code division multiplexing

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Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) shares the
channel by placing users on different frequencies:

Overall FDM channel

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Frequency Division Multiplexing
• Assignment of non-overlapping frequency
ranges to each “user” or signal on a medium
Thus, all signals are transmitted at the same
time, each using different frequencies
• A multiplexor accepts inputs and assigns
frequencies to each device.
• demultiplexor, is on the end of the high-speed
line and separates the multiplexed signals

Data
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Frequency Division Multiplexing (continued)

Data
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Frequency Division Multiplexing (continued)
• Broadcast radio and television, cable
television, and cellular telephone systems use
frequency division multiplexing.

• This technique is the oldest multiplexing

technique , since it involves a certain level of
analog signaling, it may be susceptible to
noise

Data
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Time Division Multiplexing
• Sharing of the signal is accomplished by
dividing available transmission time on a
medium among users
• It can be only used in digital data.
• Time division multiplexing comes in two basic
forms:
Synchronous time division multiplexing
Statistical time division multiplexing

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Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
 The original time division multiplexing

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Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
 Synchronous TDM works by the multiplexor giving exactly the
same amount of time to each device connected to it.
 This time slice is allocated even if a device has nothing to
transmit.
 This is wasteful in that there will be many times when
allocated time slots are not being used. Therefore, the use of
Synchronous TDM does not guarantee maximum line usage
and efficiency.

Data
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Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
 A statistical multiplexor transmits the data from active
workstations only
 If a workstation is not active, no space is wasted in the
multiplexed stream

Data
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Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)

5
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Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)
 A statistical multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams
and creates a frame containing the data to be transmitted
 To identify each piece of data, an address is included

Data
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Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
(continued)
 If the data is of variable size, a length is also included

Data
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Wavelength Division Multiplexing
 WDM  is used with fiber optic cables.  
 WDM is a technology that closely resembles frequency
division multiplexing, but is specifically used to combine lots
of Optical Carrier signals into a single optical fiber.
 Multiplexes multiple data streams onto a single fiber-optic line
 Different wavelength lasers (called lambdas) transmit the
multiple signals

Data
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Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(continued)

5
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Code Division Multiplexing
 Also known as code division multiple access
 An advanced technique that allows multiple devices to
transmit on the same frequencies at the same time
 Each mobile device is assigned a unique 64-bit code

Data
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Key elements of CDMA
 Use of wide bandwidth.
 Spreading codes used:   In order to achieve the increased bandwidth,
the data is spread by use of a code which is independent of the data.
 Level of security:   In order to receive the data, the receiver must have a
knowledge of the spreading code, without this it is not possible to
decipher the transmitted data, and this gives a measure of security.
 Multiple access:   The use of the spreading codes which are
independent for each user along with synchronous reception allow
multiple users to access the same channel simultaneously.

Data
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Code Division Multiplexing (continued)
 To send a binary 1, a mobile device transmits the unique
code
 To send a binary 0, a mobile device transmits the inverse of
the code
 To send nothing, a mobile device transmits zeros

Data
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Code Division Multiplexing (continued)
 Receiver gets summed signal, multiplies it by receiver code,
adds up the resulting values
Interprets as a binary 1 if sum is near +64
Interprets as a binary 0 if sum is near -64

Data
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Code Division Multiplexing (continued)
 For simplicity, assume 8-bit code
 Example
Three different mobile devices use the following codes:
Mobile A: 11110000
Mobile B: 10101010
Mobile C: 00110011
Assume Mobile A sends a 1, B sends a 0, and C sends a 1
Signal code:
1-chip = +N volt;
0-chip = -N volt

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Code Division Multiplexing (continued)
 Example (continued)
Three signals transmitted:
Mobile A sends a 1, or 11110000, or ++++----
Mobile B sends a 0, or 01010101, or -+-+-+-+
Mobile C sends a 1, or 00110011, or --++--++
Summed signal received by base station: -1, +1, +1, +3, -3, -1, -1, +1

Data
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Code Division Multiplexing (continued)
 Example (continued)
Base station decode for Mobile A:
Signal received: -1, +1, +1, +3, -3, -1, -1, +1
Mobile A’s code: +1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1, -1
Product result: -1, +1, +1, +3, +3, +1, +1, -1
Sum of Products: +8
Decode rule: For result near +8, data is binary 1

Data
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Code Division Multiplexing (continued)
 Example (continued)
Base station decode for Mobile B:
Signal received: -1, +1, +1, +3, -3, -1, -1, +1
Mobile B’s code: +1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1
Product result: -1, -1, +1, -3, -3, +1, -1, -1
Sum of Products: -8
Decode rule: For result near -8, data is binary 0

Data
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Comparison of Multiplexing Techniques

6
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4.3 Data Link Layer Protocols

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Purpose of the Data Link Layer
Data Link Sublayers

Network

LLC Sublayer

Data Link

MAC Sublayer

Bluetooth
Bluetooth
Ethernet
Ethernet

802.15
802.11

802.15
802.11
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi
802.3
Physical

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Purpose of the Data Link Layer
Media Access Control
The Data Link Layer

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Purpose of the Data Link Layer
Providing Access to Media

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Data Link Layer
Formatting Data for Transmission

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Layer 2 Standards
Data Link Layer Standards
Standard
Networking Standards
organization

• 802.2: Logical Link Control (LLC)

• 802.3: Ethernet
• 802.4: Token bus
IEEE • 802.5: Token passing
• 802.11: Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi-Fi certification)
• 802.15: Bluetooth
• 802.16: WiMax

• G.992: ADSL
• G.8100 - G.8199: MPLS over Transport aspects
ITU-T • Q.921: ISDN
• Q.922: Frame Relay

• HDLC (High Level Data Link Control)

ISO • ISO 9314: FDDI Media Access Control (MAC)

ANSI • X3T9.5 and X3T12: Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

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Topologies
Controlling Access to the Media

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WAN Topologies
Common Physical WAN Topologies

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WAN Topologies
Physical Point-to-Point Topology

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WAN Topologies
Logical Point-to-Point Topology

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WAN Topologies
Half- and Full-Duplex
Half-Duplex

Full-Duplex

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LAN Topologies
Physical LAN Topologies

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LAN Topologies
Logical Topology for Shared Media

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LAN Topologies
Contention-Based Access

Characteristics Contention-Based Technologies

• Stations can transmit at any time • CSMA/CD for 802.3 Ethernet networks
• Collision exist • CSMA/CA for 802.11 wireless networks
• There are mechanisms to resolve
contention for the media

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LAN Topologies
Multi-Access Topology

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LAN Topologies
Controlled Access

Characteristics Controlled Access Technologies

• Only one station can transmit at a time • Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
• Devices wanting to transmit must wait • FDDI
their turn
• No collisions
• May use a token passing method

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LAN Topologies
Ring Topology

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Data Link Frame
The Frame

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Data Link Frame
Layer 2 Address

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Data Link Frame
The Trailer

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Data Link Frame
LAN and WAN Frames

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Data Link Frame
Ethernet Frame

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Data Link Frame
Point-to-Point Protocol Frame

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Network Access
Summary
 The TCP/IP network access layer is the equivalent of the OSI data link
layer (Layer 2) and the physical layer (Layer 1).
 The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make
up a data link layer frame across the network media.
 The physical layer standards address three functional areas: physical
components, frame encoding technique, and signaling method.
 Using the proper media is an important part of network communications.
Without the proper physical connection, either wired or wireless,
communications between any two devices will not occur.
 Wired communication consists of copper media and fiber cable.
 There are three main types of copper media used in networking:
unshielded-twisted pair (UTP), shielded-twisted pair (STP), and coaxial
cable. UTP cabling is the most common copper networking media.

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Network Access
Summary (cont.)
 Optical fiber cable has become very popular for interconnecting
infrastructure network devices. It permits the transmission of data over
longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than any other
networking media.
 Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary
digits of data communications using radio or microwave frequencies.
 The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames between
nodes over a physical network media. It allows the upper layers to access
the media and controls how data is placed and received on the media.
 Among the different implementations of the data link layer protocols, there
are different methods of controlling access to the media. These media
access control techniques define if and how the nodes share the media.
 The actual media access control method used depends on the topology
and media sharing. LAN and WAN topologies can be physical or logical.

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Network Access
Summary (cont.)
 WANs are commonly interconnected using the point-to-point, hub and
spoke, or mesh physical topologies.
 In shared media LANs, end devices can be interconnected using the star,
bus, ring, or extended star (hybrid) physical topologies.
 All data link layer protocols encapsulate the Layer 3 PDU within the data
field of the frame. However, the structure of the frame and the fields
contained in the header and trailer vary according to the protocol.

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