III.

Cellular Organization
Lloyd O. Balinado, DBS, CvSU
Chapter Outline
• Cellular Level of Organization
• Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
• Cell Ultrastructure and Function
• The Nucleus
• The Plasma Membrane
CELLULAR LEVEL OF
ORGANIZATION
Cellular Organization
About 200 different types of specialized cells carry out a
multitude of functions that help each system contribute to the
homeostasis of the entire body. At the same time, all cells share
key structures and functions that support their intense activity.
Discovery of Cell
• 1590: Janssen Bros. (Hans and Zacharias) invented the flea
glasses
• 1665: Robert Hooke observed thinly sliced piece of cork;
observed empty compartments which reminded him of the
cells in the monastery and gave the Latin name cellulae
• 1667: Anton van Leeuwenhoek developed microscope with
300x magnification
Cell Theory
• A unifying concept in biology
• States that:
1. All organisms are composed of cells
• German botanist Matthias Schleiden in 1838
• German zoologist Theodore Schwann in 1839
2. All cells come only from preexisting cells
• German physician Rudolph Virchow in 1850’s
3. Smallest unit of life
Cell Size and Shape
• Mycoplasma: smallest cell; a bacterium measuring 0.0001
mm in diameter
• Nerve cells in giraffe’s neck: measure 3.0 m (9.7 ft)
• Micrometer (µm): common unit of measure in the study of
cell
• Spherical: ideal shape
Cell Size and Shape
• Cell shape is related to its functions:
• Long for contraction (muscle cell)
• With protoplasmic processes for conducting impulses (nerve cell)
• Concave disc for O distribution (blood cell)
Cell Size and Shape
Shapes of Bacterial Cells
PROKARYOTIC AND
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Main Types of Cells
1. Prokaryotic
• Domains Archaea and Bacteria

2. Eukaryotic
• Domain Eukarya
Basic Features of All Cells
1. Plasma Membrane
2. Cytosol
3. DNA
4. Ribosomes
Basic Features of Prokaryotic Cells
1. No true nucleus
2. DNA located in nucleoid region
3. No membrane-bound organelles
4. Cell wall, plasma membrane and cytoplasm
Typical Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell
Basic Features of Eukaryotic Cells
1. DNA in nucleus
2. Nuclear envelope with pores
3. Membrane-bound organelles
4. Plasma membrane and cytoplasm
5. Larger in size
Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote
CRITERIA PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
Nucleus Nucleoid region True nucleus
Membrane-Bound Absent Present
Organelles
Complexity Less complex More complex
Organization Unicellular Uni/Multicellular
Size 1-10 µm 10-100 µm
Cell Division Binary Fission Mitosis and Meiosis

Ribosomes Smaller Larger

Examples Bacteria and Protists, Fungi, Plants,
Archaebacteria Animals
Endosymbiont Theory
• Hypothesized theory of the origin of eukaryotic cell
• Discusses how an ancestral cell engulfed an aerobic cell and
a photosynthetic cell which later became the mitochondrion
and chloroplast, respectively
Plant vs. Animal Cell
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
Have a cell wall Does not have a cell wall
Is more square and angular in
Is more free-formed and round
shape

Has chloroplasts Does not have chloroplasts

Has a large vacuole Does not have a vacuole
Does not have lysosomes Has lysosomes
Does not have centrioles Has centrioles
Common Characteristics of Cells
• Perform the general functions necessary to sustain life:
1. Obtain nutrients and other materials from its surrounding
fluids.
• Fuel molecules, O2, building blocks, minerals, etc.
2. Dispose of wastes products
• Urea (from nitrogen), CO2, metabolic waste
Common Characteristics of Cells
• Perform the general functions necessary to sustain life
(cont’d):
3. Maintain shape and integrity
• Size and shape are related to function
4. Cell division:
• Mitosis: growth and repair
• Meiosis: gamete formation
CELL ULTRASTRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
 • Command center of cell, usually near
NUCLEUS center
• Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
envelope
– Consists of double layer of membrane
– Nuclear pores permit exchange between
nucleoplasm & cytoplasm
• Contains chromatin in semifluid
nucleoplasm
– Chromatin contains DNA of genes
– Condenses to form chromosomes
• Dark nucleolus composed of rRNA
– Produces subunits of ribosomes
NUCLEUS

Structure
 • Serve in protein synthesis
Ribosome
• Composed of rRNA
– Consists of a large subunit and a
small subunit
– Subunits made in nucleolus
• May be located:
– On the endoplasmic reticulum
(thereby making it “rough”), or
– Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or
in groups called polyribosomes
Ribosome

Structure
CYTOPLASM • Contains various organelles
• Organelles are small, usually
membranous structures that are
best seen with an electron
microscope.
• Each type of organelle has a
specific function.
• Various cellular activities separated
from one another by membranes
CYTOPLASM • “Factory area”
• Site of most cellular activities
• Major elements:
1. Cytosol – semitransparent fluid
2. Organelles – metabolic machinery;
includes the endomembrane system
and energy-related organelles
3. Inclusions – stored nutrients/cell
products
Cytosol • Matrix; intracellular material
• Differs in different cell
• Mostly water
Organelles • metabolic machinery; includes the
endomembrane system and energy-
related organelles
Endomembrane System • Restrict enzymatic reactions to
specific compartments within cell
• Consists of:
– Nuclear envelope
– Membranes of endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Vesicles
• Several types
• Transport materials between organelles
of system
 • Rough ER
Endomembrane
– Studded with ribosomes on
System:
cytoplasmic side
Endoplasmic Reticulum
– Protein anabolism
• Synthesizes proteins
• Modifies proteins
• Smooth ER
– No ribosomes
– Synthesis of lipids
Endomembrane
System:
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endomembrane • Consists of 3-20 flattened, curved
System: saccules
Golgi Apparatus • Resembles stack of hollow
pancakes
• Modifies proteins and lipids
– Packages them in vesicles
– Receives vesicles from ER on cis face
– Prepares for “shipment” in vesicles
from trans face
• Within cell
• Export from cell (secretion, exocytosis)
Endomembrane
System:
Golgi Apparatus
Endomembrane • Membrane-bound vesicles (not in
System: plants)
– Produced by the Golgi apparatus
Lysosome
– Low pH
– Contain lytic enzymes which mostly
act within the cell
• Digestion of large molecules
• Recycling of cellular resources
• Apoptosis (programmed cell death, like
tadpole losing tail)
• Autophagy: removal of old organelles
• Autolysis: destruction of the cell
Endomembrane • Some operate in extracellular
System: digestion
– One example occurs during
Lysosome
fertilization. The head of a sperm cell
releases lysosomal enzymes that aid
its penetration of the oocyte by
dissolving its protective coating in a
process called the acrosomal reaction
Endomembrane • Some genetic diseases
System: – Caused by defect in lysosomal enzyme
– Lysosomal storage diseases (Tay-
Lysosome
Sachs) instance, Tay-Sachs disease,
which most often affects children of
Ashkenazi (eastern European Jewish)
descent, is an inherited condition
characterized by the absence of a single
lysosomal enzyme called Hex A. This
enzyme normally breaks down a
membrane glycolipid called ganglioside
GM2 that is especially prevalent in nerve
cells.
Endomembrane • Some genetic diseases (cont’d)
System: – As the excess ganglioside GM2
accumulates, the nerve cells function
Lysosome
less efficiently. Children with Tay-
Sachs disease typically experience
seizures and muscle rigidity. They
gradually become blind, demented,
and uncoordinated and usually die
before the age of 5. Tests can now
reveal whether an adult is a carrier of
the defective gene.
Endomembrane
System:
Lysosome
Endomembrane
System:
Summary of ER, Golgi
Apparatus and
Lysosome
1. Proteins synthesized by ribosomes on the rough ER are
surrounded by a piece of the ER membrane, which eventually buds
from the membrane surface to form transport vesicles.

2-46
 2. Transport vesicles move toward the entry face of
the Golgi complex.

3. Fusion of several transport vesicles creates the

entry face of the Golgi complex and releases
proteins into its lumen (space).

4. The proteins move from the entry face into one or

more medial cisternae. enzymes in the medial cisternae
modify the proteins to form glycoproteins, glycolipids,
and lipoproteins.

Transfer vesicles that bud from the edges of the

cisternae move specific enzymes back toward the entry
face and move some partially modified proteins toward
the exit face.

2-47
 6. Within the exit face cisternae,
5. The products of the the products are further modified
medial cisternae move into and are sorted and packaged.
the lumen of the exit face.

2-48
7. Some of the processed proteins leave
the exit face and are stored in secretory
vesicles. These vesicles deliver the
proteins to the plasma membrane, where
they are discharged by exocytosis into the
extracellular fluid. For example, certain
pancreatic cells release the hormone
insulin in this way. 2-49
8. Other processed proteins leave the exit
face in membrane vesicles that deliver their
contents to the plasma membrane for
incorporation into the membrane. In doing
so, the Golgi complex adds new segments
of plasma membrane as existing segments
are lost and modifies the number and
distribution of membrane molecules.

2-50
9. Finally, some processed proteins
leave the exit face in transport
vesicles that will carry the proteins to
another cellular destination.

For instance, transport vesicles carry

digestive enzymes to lysosomes; the
structure and functions of these
important organelles are discussed
next.
2-51
Endomembrane • Similar to lysosomes
System: – Membrane-bounded vesicles
– Enclose enzymes
Peroxisome
• However
– Enzymes synthesized by free
ribosomes in cytoplasm (instead of ER)
– Active in lipid metabolism
– Catalyze reactions that produce
hydrogen peroxide H2O2
• Toxic
• Broken down to water & O2 by catalase
Endomembrane
System:
Peroxisome
Endomembrane • Membranous sacs that are larger than
vesicles
System: – Store materials that occur in excess
Vacuole – Others very specialized (contractile vacuole)
• Plants cells typically have a central
vacuole
– Up to 90% volume of some cells
– Functions in:
• Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and waste
products
• Development of turgor pressure
• Some functions performed by lysosomes in
other eukaryotes
Endomembrane
System:
Vacuole
 • Bounded by double membrane
Energy-Related • Inner membrane infolded
Chloroplast – Forms disc-like thylakoids, which are
stacked to form grana
– Suspended in semi-fluid stroma
• Green due to chlorophyll
– Green photosynthetic pigment
– Found ONLY in inner membranes of
chloroplast
 • Captures light energy to drive
Energy-Related cellular machinery
Chloroplast • Photosynthesis
– Synthesizes carbohydrates from CO2
& H2O
– Makes own food using CO2 as only
carbon source
– Energy-poor compounds converted to
enery rich compounds
Energy-Related
Chloroplast
 • Bounded by double membrane
Energy-Related – Cristae – Infoldings of inner
Mitochondrion membrane that encloses matrix
– Matrix – Inner semifluid containing
respiratory enzymes
• Involved in cellular respiration
• Produce most of ATP utilized by the
cell
Energy-Related
Mitochondrion
 • Bounded by double membrane
Energy-Related – Cristae – Infoldings of inner
Mitochondrion membrane that encloses matrix
– Matrix – Inner semifluid containing
respiratory enzymes
• Involved in cellular respiration
• Produce most of ATP utilized by the
cell
Cytoskeleton • Maintains cell shape
• Assists in movement of cell and
organelles
• Three types of macromolecular
fibers
1. Actin Filaments
2. Intermediate Filaments
3. Microtubules
• Assemble and disassemble as
needed
Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton: • Extremely thin filaments like twisted
Actin Filaments pearl necklace
• Dense web just under plasma
membrane maintains cell shape
• Support for microvilli in intestinal
cells
• Intracellular traffic control
– For moving stuff around within cell
– Cytoplasmic streaming
Cytoskeleton: • Function in pseudopods of
Actin Filaments amoeboid cells
• Pinch mother cell in two after animal
mitosis
• Important component in muscle
contraction (other is myosin)
Cytoskeleton: Actin Filament Operation
Actin Filaments
Cytoskeleton: • Intermediate in size between actin
Intermediate filaments and microtubules
Filaments • Rope-like assembly of fibrous
polypeptides
• Vary in nature
– From tissue to tissue
– From time to time
• Functions:
– Support nuclear envelope
– Cell-cell junctions, like those holding
skin cells tightly together
Cytoskeleton:
Intermediate
Filaments
 • Hollow cylinders made of two globular
proteins called α and b tubulin
Cytoskeleton:
• Spontaneous pairing of α and b tubulin
Microtubules molecules form structures called dimers
• Dimers then arrange themselves into
tubular spirals of 13 dimers around
• Assembly:
– Under control of Microtubule
Organizing Center (MTOC)
– Most important MTOC is centrosome
• Interacts with proteins kinesin and dynein
to cause movement of organelles
Microtubular • Short, hollow cylinders
Arrays: – Composed of 27 microtubules
Centrioles – Microtubules arranged into 9
overlapping triplets
• One pair per animal cell
– Located in centrosome of animal cells
– Oriented at right angles to each other
– Separate during mitosis to determine
plane of division; forms spindle
• May give rise to basal bodies of cilia
and flagella
Microtubular
Arrays:
Centrioles
Microtubular • Hair-like projections from cell
Arrays: surface that aid in cell movement
Cilia and Flagella • Very different from prokaryote
flagella
– Outer covering of plasma membrane
– Inside this is a cylinder of 18
microtubules arranged in 9 pairs
– In center are two single microtubules
– This 9 + 2 pattern used by all cilia &
flagella
Microtubular • In eukaryotes, cilia are much shorter
Arrays: than flagella
– Cilia move in coordinated waves like
Cilia and Flagella
oars
– Flagella move like a propeller or cork
screw
Microtubular
Arrays:
Cilia and Flagella
Inside the
Cell
THE NUCLEUS
Nucleus
• Enclosed by a double membrane called the nuclear
envelope.
• The nuclear envelope:
– controls the entry and exit of materials between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm.
Nucleoli
• The cell nucleus may contain one or more nucleoli.
• Nucleoli:
– are responsible for making the small and the large subunits of
ribosomes.
81
Chromosomal Organization
• Chromosome  Chromatin  Condensed Fiber  “Beads
on a String”  Nucleosome (histone proteins + DNA) 
DNA
Insert Figure 2.18

83
Chromosome
• The chromosome is the most organized level of genetic
material.
• Each chromosome contains a single, long molecule of DNA
and associated proteins.
• Chromosomes become visible only when the cell is dividing.
Chromatin
• Long thread-like material of eukaryotic chromosomes.
• During interphase it is dispersed and fills most of the
nucleus; during nuclear division it condenses into compact
chromosomes.
Nucleosome
• the basic unit of the chromatin which consists of:
– a protein core of eight histone molecules (two each of histone H2A,
H2B, H3 and H4) and
– a molecule of DNA wound around the protein core
• connected to another nucleosome by linker DNA, which then
gives a ”beads on a string” appearance
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
• Double-helix structure which contains and transmits genetic
information and determines the properties or characteristics
(phenotype) of living organisms
• the genetic material is the DNA, except in some viruses
where RNA is the genetic material
• uncoiled DNA of a human chromosome has an average
length of 5 cm
Gene
• Basic unit of heredity
• A segment of the DNA strand which contains the code for a
particular protein
• The phenotype of a cell and the entire organism depends on
its genes or DNA
Nuclear Processes
• Central Dogma
1. DNA Replication
2. Transcription
3. Translation
• Cell Cycle
1. Mitosis
2. Meiosis
Central Dogma
• a statement of how process involving the DNA gave rise to
the synthesis of a protein
• involves the following processes:
1. DNA
Replication
• the process of faithfully copying
DNA to produce two DNA
molecules identical to the parent
DNA
• DNA replicates in a semi-
conservative manner
2. Transcription
• the synthesis of RNA from a DNA
template
2. Transcription
• Three types of RNA which can
be synthesized:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) –
provides the template for protein
synthesis
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) – transfers
amino acids from the cytoplasm to
the ribosomes
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – are
complexed with ribosomal
proteins to form ribosomes
3. Translation
• the synthesis of protein from
mRNA
Cell Cycle
• The life cycle of the cell is called the cell cycle.
• New cells must be made continuously in order for an
organism to grow and replace its damaged cells.
• Two types of cell division:
– Mitosis: is the cell division process that takes place in somatic cells.
– Meiosis: is the cell division process that takes place in gonads to
produce gametes.
96
Interphase
1. G1 Phase
• Cell recovers from previous
division
• Cell increases in size
• Cell doubles its organelles
Interphase
2. S Phase
• Each chromosome is composed
of one DNA double helix
• DNA replication then occurs
Interphase
3. G2 Phase
• Stage from the complexation of
DNA replication to the onset of
mitosis
• Cell finishes growing
• Two centrosomes appeared in
the cytoplasm
A. Mitosis
1. Prophase
• The first and longest stage of
mitosis
• Chromatin threads condense into
chromosomes
• Chromosomes are made up of
two threads called chromatids
• Chromatids are held together by
the centromere
A. Mitosis
1. Prophase
• Nucleolus disappears
• Nuclear membrane fragments
• Chromosomes are visible
• Centrosomes separate from one
another
• The mitotic spindle forms
A. Mitosis
2. Metaphase
• Prometaphase: Kinetochore of
each chromatid is attached to
spindle fiber
• Chromosomes cluster at the
middle of the cell
• Centromeres are aligned along
the equator
A. Mitosis
3. Anaphase
• Third and shortest stage of
mitosis
• Centromeres of chromosomes
split resulting in doubled number
of chromosomes (4n)
• Daughter chromosomes move
toward the spindle poles
• Each pole receives the same
number and kinds of
chromosomes as the parent cell
A. Mitosis
4. Telophase
• Begins as chromosomal
movement stops
• New nuclear membrane forms
• Nucleolus reappears
• Chromosomes at opposite poles
of the cell uncoil and resume their
thread-like extended-chromatin
form
Cytokinesis
• completes the division of the
cell into two daughter cells
• Daughter cells are completely
separated from each other
• In animal cells, cleavage
furrow is formed during
telophase
• In plant cells, a cell plate is
formed which divides the cell
into two
Functions of Mitosis
• It permits cell growth and repair
• It allows a cut to heal or a broken bone to mend
• It is critical to the development of an organism
Mitosis
 Interphase

B. Meiosis Homologous pair of chromosomes in diploid parent cell

• Requires two nuclear divisions Chromosomes

(Meiosis I and Meiosis II) and Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes
replicate

produces 4 haploid (n) cells Diploid cell with

Sister
• The daughter cells receive one chromatids replicated chromosomes

of each kind of parental Meiosis I

chromosome, but in different Homologous
chromosomes
combinations separate
Haploid cells with
replicated chromosomes
Meiosis II

Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes

B.1 Meiosis I
1. Prophase I
• Chromosomes have duplicated
• Homologous chromosomes pair
during synapsis, forming tetrads
(a group of 4 chromatids)
• Crossing-over occurs in which
nonsister chromatids exchange
DNA segments
• Each tetrad usually has 1 or
more chiasmata, regions
where crossing-over occurred
B.1 Meiosis I
2. Metaphase I
• Homologous pairs align
independently at the metaphase
plate
B.1 Meiosis I
3. Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes
separate and move toward the
poles
• One chromosome moves toward
each pole, guided by the spindle
apparatus
• Sister chromatids remain
attached at the centromere and
move as one unit toward the pole
B.1 Meiosis I
4. Telophase I
• Each half of the cell has a haploid
set of chromosomes; each
chromosome still consists of two
sister chromatids
• Cytokinesis occurs forming two
haploid daughter cells
B. Meiosis
Interkinesis
• Stage between Meiosis I and II
• Similar to interphase except that
DNA replication does not occur
because the chromosomes are
already duplicated
B.2 Meiosis II
1. Prophase II
• A spindle apparatus forms
• In late prophase II, chromosomes
(each still composed of two
chromatids) move toward the
metaphase plate
B.2 Meiosis II
2. Metaphase II
• Chromosomes align at the
metaphase plate
B.2 Meiosis II
3. Anaphase II
• Sister chromatids separate and
become daughter chromosomes
B.2 Meiosis II
4. Telophase II
• Daughter cells are forming
• Cytokinesis separates the
cytoplasm
• At the end of meiosis, there are
four daughter cells, each with a
haploid set of unreplicated
chromosomes
• Each daughter cell is genetically
distinct from the others and from
the parent cell
Summary of Meiosis

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I and

Cytokinesis
Centrosome Sister chromatids
(with centriole pair) remain attached
Sister Centromere
Chiasmata (with kinetochore)
chromatids
Spindle Metaphase
plate

Homologous Homologous Cleavage

chromosomes chromosomes furrow
separate
Fragments Microtubule
of nuclear attached to
envelope kinetochore
119
Meiosis
A Comparison of Mitosis and
Meiosis
• Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome sets,
producing cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell

• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets from two

(diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells that differ
genetically from each other and from the parent cell

• The mechanism for separating sister chromatids is virtually

identical in meiosis II and mitosis
A Comparison of Mitosis and
Meiosis
• Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three occur in
meiosis l:
• Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I: Homologous
chromosomes physically connect and exchange genetic
information
• At the metaphase plate, there are paired homologous
chromosomes (tetrads), instead of individual replicated
chromosomes
• At anaphase I, it is homologous chromosomes, instead of sister
chromatids, that separate
Fig. 13-9
SUMMARY

Property Mitosis Meiosis

DNA Occurs during interphase before Occurs during interphase before meiosis I begins
replication mitosis begins

Number of One, including prophase, metaphase, Two, each including prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
divisions anahase, and telophase telophase

Synapsis of Does not occur Occurs during prophase I along with crossing over
homologous between nonsister chromatids; resulting chiasmata
chromosomes hold pairs together due to sister chromatid cohesion

Number of Two, each diploid (2n) and genetically Four, each haploid (n), containing half as many chromosomes
daughter cells identical to the parent cell as the parent cell; genetically different from the parent
and genetic cell and from each other
composition

Role in the Enables multicellular adult to arise from Produces gametes; reduces number of chromosomes by half
animal body zygote; produces cells for growth, repair, and introduces genetic variability amoung the gametes
and, in some species, asexual reproduction

123
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Structure and Function
• The plasma membrane is common to all cells
• Separates:
• Internal living cytoplasmic from external environment of cell
• Phospholipid bilayer:
• External surface lined with hydrophilic polar heads
• Cytoplasmic surface lined with hydrophilic polar heads
• Nonpolar, hydrophobic, fatty-acid tails sandwiched in between

125
Phospholipid & Cholesterol
Molecules

126
Fluid-Mosaic Model
Three components:
• Basic membrane referred to as phospholipid bilayer
• Protein molecules which float around like icebergs on a sea, and
some has carbohydrate chains attached
• Peripheral proteins are found on the inner membrane surface
• Integral proteins are partially or wholly embedded (transmembrane) in the
membrane
• Cholesterol
PLASMA
MEMBRANE

Structure
Transmembrane
Protein

Structure
Functions of Membrane Proteins
1. Channel Proteins
• Tubular
• Allow passage of molecules through membrane

2. Carrier Proteins
• Combine with substance to be transported
• Assist passage of molecules through membrane

3. Cell Recognition Proteins

• Provides unique chemical ID for cells
• Help body recognize foreign substances
130
Functions of Membrane Proteins
4. Receptor Proteins
• Binds with messenger molecule
• Causes cell to respond to message

5. Enzymatic Proteins
• Carry out metabolic reactions directly

131
132
Types of Transport: Active vs.
Passive
• Plasma membrane is differentially (selectively) permeable
• Allows some material to pass
• Inhibits passage of other materials

133
Types of Transport: Active vs.
Passive
• Passive Transport
• No ATP requirement
• Molecules follow concentration gradient
• Active Transport
• Requires carrier protein
• Requires energy in form of ATP

134
135
Types of Transport: Diffusion
• A solution consists of:
• A solvent (liquid) , and
• A solute (dissolved solid)
• Diffusion
– Net movement of solute molecules down a concentration gradient
– More move from high to low concentration than vice versa

136
137
Factors Affecting the Diffusion
Rate of Substances
• Steepness of the concentration gradient. The greater the
difference in concentration between the two sides of the
membrane, the higher the rate of diffusion.
• Temperature. The higher the temperature, the faster the rate
of diffusion.
• Mass of the diffusing substance. The larger the mass of the
diffusing particle, the slower its diffusion rate. Smaller
molecules diffuse more rapidly than larger ones.
Factors Affecting the Diffusion
Rate of Substances
• Surface area. The larger the membrane surface area
available for diffusion, the faster the diffusion rate.
• Diffusion distance. The greater the distance over which
diffusion must occur, the longer it takes. Diffusion across a
plasma membrane takes only a fraction of a second because
the membrane is so thin.
Types of Transport: Osmosis
• Special case of diffusion

• Focuses on solvent (water) movement rather than solute

• Diffusion of water across a differentially (selectively)

permeable membrane
• Solute concentration on one side high, but water concentration
low
• Solute concentration on other side low, but water concentration
high

140
Types of Transport: Osmosis
• Water diffuses both ways across membrane but solute can’t

• Net movement of water is toward low water (high solute)

concentration
• Osmotic pressure is the pressure that develops due to
osmosis

141
142
Types of Transport: Osmosis
Tonicity: strength of a solution with respect to osmotic pressure.

1. Isotonic Solution
• Solute and water concentrations equal on both sides of membrane

143
Types of Transport: Osmosis
2. Hypotonic Solution
• Concentration of solute lower than on other side
• Cells placed in a hypotonic solution will swell
• May cause cells to break – Lysis

3. Hypertonic Solution
• Concentration of solute higher than on other side
• Cells placed in a hypertonic solution will shrink – Plasmolysis

144
145
Types of Transport: Carrier
Proteins
• Facilitated Transport
• Small molecules can’t get through membrane lipids
• It combines with carrier proteins and follow concentration gradient
• Active Transport
• Small molecules move against concentration gradient
• They combine with carrier proteins
• Requires energy

146
147
The Sodium-Potassium Pump

148
Active Transport
• Antiporters: carry two
substances across the
membrane in opposite
directions.
Active Transport
• Symporters: carry two
substances across the
membrane in the same
direction.
Types of Transport: Membrane-
Assisted Transport
• Macromolecules transported into or out of the cell inside
vesicles
1. Exocytosis – Vesicles fuse with plasma membrane and secrete
contents
2. Endocytosis – Cells engulf substances into pouch which
becomes a vesicle
a. Phagocytosis – Large, solid material into vesicle
b. Pinocytosis – Liquid or small, solid particles go into vesicle
c. Receptor-Mediated – Specific form of pinocytosis using a coated pit

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Exocytosis

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Endocytosis

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Cell Surface Modifications:
Junctions
• Junctions between cells
1. Adhesion Junctions
• Intercellular filaments between
cells
2. Tight Junctions
• Form impermeable barriers

3. Gap Junctions
• Plasma membrane channels are
joined (allows communication)

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Cell Surface Modifications
• Extracellular Matrix
• External meshwork of polysaccharides and proteins found in close
association with the cell that produced them
• Plant Cell Walls
• Plants have freely permeable cell wall, with cellulose as the main
component
• Plasmodesmata penetrate cell wall
• Each contains a strand of cytoplasm
• Allow passage of material between cells

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Extracellular Matrix

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Plasmodesmata

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III. Cellular Organization
Lloyd O. Balinado, DBS, CvSU