Chapter One

The nature of
Research
Methodology
Presented By Dr
Eman Mohamed Abd-El-Salam
?What is Marketing
Marketing is a philosophy that leads to
the process by which organizations,
groups and individuals obtain what
they need and want by identifying
value, providing it, communicating it
and delivering it to others.
Core Concepts of Marketing are
Customers’
 Needs, wants and values;

 Products (Goods, services, ideas),

 Exchange, communications and

relationships.
 Need: State of felt deprivation including
physical, social, and individual needs.

1. Physical:
Food, clothing, shelter, safety
2. Social:
 Belonging, affection
3. Individual:
 Learning, knowledge, self-expression
 Wants: Form that a human need takes, as
shaped by culture and individual
personality.

 Wants + Buying Power = Demand

 Value is simply the quality provided for

long-term mutually satisfying relationships
with those customers.
 Thus

 Marketing is managing profitable

customer relationships.
Goals:
1. Attract new customers by promising
superior value.
2. Keep and grow current customers by
delivering satisfaction.
Why Research Is Important?

What are The Benefits?

Research Aids -But Does Not Replace-
Decision Making
 In an era of scarce resources, the only constant
thing in the world of business is change, change
creates opportunities and threats.

 Thus, for risk reduction, managers want results

and proof they demand measurement, analysis
and evaluation at every stage of the process.

They are less interested in what
we think than what we know.
 Manager: We need you to help us find a new
advertising agency.
 Researcher: Why do you believe you need a new ad
agency?
 Manager: Because our market share is slipping.
 Researcher: Why do you believe that is the fault of
your ad agency?
 Manager: Because we think they have not created a
high enough level of awareness and interest in our
product among target market members.
 Researcher: OK, but why do you believe that? What
evidence (Know) do you have that ties your declining
market share to a problem with advertising?
?Does the company have a clue about the problem

 Asking “why” questions is the answer!!!!!

 At this point it will become obvious that the

company does not have any evidence that
supports the argument that poor advertising is the
source of the decline in market share. This should
open the door for the researcher to suggest and
identify the source of the problem.
Definition of Business
Research
 Business research: an
organized and systematic
inquiry or investigation into a
specific problem, undertaken
with the purpose of finding
answers or solutions to it.
Used to identify and
define market
opportunities and
problems
Generate, refine, and
evaluate marketing
performance
Monitor marketing
performance

Improve understanding
of marketing as a
process
 Science Vs. Common Sense
 Common sense is a bad master for
judging creative / innovative thoughts,
because of relying on previous experience.

 The difference lies in two words

 Being systematic
 Being controlled
 ?What is Research
…Research is
 An organized, systematic process of:
Identification
 Collecting (gathering)
Recording
Analyzing
 Interpreting information (data)
 For the purpose of:
 Increase understanding of a

phenomenon.
 Improve decision making (efficient and
effective)
Problem-Identification Research
 Research undertaken to help identify
problems which are not necessarily
apparent on the surface and yet exist or
are likely to arise in the future. Examples:
market potential, market share, image,
market characteristics, sales analysis,
forecasting, and trends research.
Problem-Solving Research
 Research undertaken to help solve
specific marketing problems. Examples:
segmentation, product, pricing, promotion,
and distribution research.
When Do We Conduct Marketing Research?
Benefits Nature of Availability Time

Conduct Marketing Research

versus costs decision of Data constraints

Does the is the Can the Is sufficient

value of the decision of decision time
research considerable available
information strategic or
be made
with what before a
exceed the tactical
is already decision
cost of importance
will be
conducting known made
research?

No No No No
Do Not Conduct Marketing Research
 Marketing Research Process
Step 1: Defining the Problem

Step 2: Developing an Approach to the Problem

Step 3: Formulating a Research Design

Step 4: Doing Field Work or Collecting Data

Step 5: Preparing and Analyzing Data

Step 6: Interpreting, Preparing and Presenting

the Report
 Thus Marketing Research begins with

 Identification of a problem (phenomena)

and/or opportunities in the market.

 A problem is anything that puzzles the

researcher, a question without answers, or a
problem without solutions or maybe an
obstacle that he’s trying to overcome.
 This step takes the largest time, it’s not an easy
process to find and define a problem,
especially that it is the first step that the
research will be build upon.

2 Developing an Approach to the Problem

 Break the problem into small manageable

pieces.
 Formulating research questions and research
hypotheses.
 Formulating a Research Design-3
1. Details about the required information needed to
be collected in order to solve the problem.

2. Qualitative or quantitative or both

(Triangulation).

3. Scaling procedure and questionnaire design.

4. Sampling process and sample size.

5. Plan of data analysis.

4-Doing Field Work or Collecting Data

 Interviews- phone- mail- electronic survey.

5- Preparing and Analyzing Data

 Editing- coding- reverse questions-

computing- analyzing (Minitab/ SPSS/
Lisrel / Amos).
6- Preparing and Presenting the Report
 Findings- implications and recommendations are
provided and communicated to the client in a
format that makes this information actionable
and directly useful as an input into effective and
efficient decision making process.

 Report should address the specific research

problem identified, approach, questions and
hypotheses, data collection and analysis.
 PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Research
Positivism Interpretivism
Philosophy
phenomenological.

Deductive Inductive
Research
approaches Experiment/Survey/
Case study
Longitudinal/
Research cross-sectional
strategies
,Sampling
,Secondary data
Time ,Observation
Horizons ,Interview
Questionnaire

Data
collection
methods.
 !!!Important concepts to know
 Research philosophy: the way the
researcher thinks about the development
of knowledge.

 Methodology: methods and steps used to

conduct research and gain knowledge
about the world.
 Method : techniques and activities within
the context of methodology, how the data
will be collected and analyzed in the
research.

Research Methodology
Research
Method
 Types of Research

Applied
1
research.

2 Basic
research.
 Applied versus Basic Research

 Basic research: generates a body of

knowledge by trying to comprehend how
certain problems that occur in
organizations can be solved.
 Applied research: solves a current
problem faced by the manager in the work
setting, demanding a timely solution.
 Applied Research

 Type of research undertaken to solve a

current problem faced by the manager in
the work setting, demanding a timely
solution.
 Example:
A particular product may not be selling well
and the manager might want to find the
reasons for this in order to take a
corrective action.
 Examples Applied Research
 Apple’s iPod fueled the company’s success in recent years,
helping to increase sales from $5 billion in 2001 to $32 billion
in the fiscal year 2008. Growth for the music player averaged
more than 200% in 2006 and 2007, before falling to 6% in
2008. Some analysts believe that the number of iPods sold will
drop 12% in 2009. “The reality is there’s a limited group of
people who want an iPod or any other portable media player,”
one analyst says. “So the question becomes, what will Apple
do about it?”

 The existing machinery in the production department has had

so many breakdowns that production has suffered. Machinery
has to be replaced. Because of heavy investment costs, a
careful recommendation as to whether it is more beneficial to
buy the equipment or to lease it is needed.
 Basic or Fundamental or Pure Research

 Generate and contribute to build a body of

knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain
problems that occur in organizations can be
solved.
 Example: a university professor may be
interested in investigating the factors that
contribute to absenteeism as a matter of mere
academic interest. After gathering information
from several universities and analyzing the data,
the professor may identify factors such as
flexible work hours, inadequate training, low
morale-----etc. then is these factors relevant to
work setting in general.
 More Examples of Research Areas in
Business
 Absenteeism
 Communication
 Motivation
 Consumer decision making
 Customer satisfaction
 Budget allocations
 Accounting procedures
 Why managers should know about
research
 Being knowledgeable about research and research
methods helps professional managers to:
 Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work
setting.
 Know how to discriminate good from bad research.
 Appreciate the multiple influences and effects of factors
impinging on a situation.
 Take calculated risks in decision making.
 Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence
in a situation.
 Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.
 Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making
decisions.
 The Manager–Researcher
Relationship
 Each should know his/her role
 Trust levels
 Value system
 Acceptance of findings and
implementation
 Issues of inside versus outside
researchers/consultants
 Internal Researchers
 Advantages:
 Betteracceptance from staff
 Knowledge about organization
 Would be an integral part of implementation and
evaluation of the research recommendations.
 Disadvantages
 Less fresh ideas
 Power politics could prevail
 Possibly not valued as “expert” by staff
 External Researchers
 Advantages
 Divergent and convergent thinking
 Experience from several situations in different
organizations
 Better technical training, usually
 Disadvantages
 Takes time to know and understand the
organization
 Rapport and cooperation from staff not easy
 Not available for evaluation and implementation
 Costs
 Chapter Two
Scientific
Investigation

Presented By Dr
Eman Mohamed Abd-El-Salam
 Hallmarks of scientific research:
 Hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research:
 Purposiveness
 Rigor
 Testability
 Replicability
 Precision and Confidence
 Objectivity
 Generalizability
 Parsimony
 Hypothetico-Deductive Research
 The Seven-Step Process in the
Hypothetico-Deductive Method
 Identifya broad problem area
 Define the problem statement
 Develop hypotheses
 Determine measures
 Data collection
 Data analysis
 Interpretation of data
 Deduction and Induction
 Deductive reasoning: application of a
general theory to a specific case.
 Hypothesis testing

 Inductive reasoning: a process where we

observe specific phenomena and on this
basis arrive at general conclusions.
 Counting white swans

 Both inductive and deductive processes

are often used in research.
 Deductive Reasoning Research
Approach
 Aristotle (Greek Philosopher) is the father
of deductive knowing.
 It’s a thinking process in which one
proceeds from general to specific
statements using prescribed rules of logic.
 A system for organizing known facts in
order to reach a conclusion.
 Deductive Approach consists of:
 Major Premises.
 Minor Premises.
 Conclusion.
:Example
1. All Human beings are mortal (Major
Premises).
2. All kings are human beings (Minor
Premises).
3. All kings are mortal (Conclusion).
 Deductive Reasoning…
limitations

 Ifthe general (major) premise is

wrong/fault, therefore the conclusion is
wrong.

 Conclusion never exceeds the content

of the general premise.
Deductive Reasoning…Benefits
 One of the useful methods in research for
designing/ creating theories.
 From theory (major premises) we deduce
hypothesis (our minor premises) from which
we form our theory/conclusion.

 Theories are tested for it’s usefulness- not

right/ wrong.
 Inductive Reasoning Research
Approach
 Deductive reasoning was attacked in the
middle ages and the word “Dogma”-
Dogmatic was substituted for general
(major) premises.

 Francis Bacon (1561-1626) developed a

new school “Inductive reasoning”
 Inductive Reasoning
 Collect a lot of information/observation and
from such observation we can deduce a general
statement/conclusion.

 Bacon said that we shouldn’t start research

with preconceived ideas- “idols”
 Idols: general premise which hinders thinking

 In inductive reasoning we are free!

 Inductive Reasoning
 Defined: Observations were made about a
particular event in a class and then on the basis of
the observed events, inferences were made about
the whole class.
i.e., from specific to general

 In deductive reasoning the premise must be

known before a conclusion can be reached, but in
inductive reasoning a conclusion is reached by
observing examples and generalizing from
examples to the whole class.
What Comes First,
?Theory or Data
 Deductive theory
 It represents the commonest view of the nature of the relationship
between theory and social research- testing a theory

Theory

Hypothesis

Data collection

Findings

Hypothesis confirmed or rejected

Revision of theory
 Inductive theory
Generation of a theory

Observations/ findings

Theory
 Alternative approaches to what makes
good research
 Positivism
 Constructionnism

 The middle ground:

 Critical
realism
 Pragmatism
 Positivism
 Scientific research is the way to get to the
truth

 Rigour and replicability, reliability, and

generalizability

 Key approach: experiment, survey.

 Positivism was developed as a result of logical
and rational application of scientific method.

 Interpretivism or phenomenology was developed

as a result of observations and creative thinking
and is based on the assumption that every
phenomenon that can be observed is unique and
this uniqueness is important. The
phenomenology is “concerned with
understanding human behaviour from the
participants own frame of reference”
 Critical realism
 There is an external reality but we cannot
always objectively measure this external
reality

 The critical realist is critical of our ability to

understand the world with certainty
 Constructionism
 The world as we know it is fundamentally
mental

 Aim to understand the rules people use to

make sense of the world

 Research methods are often qualitative in

nature
 Pragmatism
 Do not take a particular position on what
makes good research

 Research on both objective and subjective

phenomena can produce useful knowledge

 Relationship between theory and practice

 Purpose of theory is to inform practice

 The Scientific Approach
 Many problems cannot be solved by induction alone.
Thus, scholars learnt to integrate the most important
aspects of the inductive and deductive methods in to a
new technique- the scientific approach.

 Researchers move inductively from their

observations to hypothesis and then deductively
from the hypothesis to the logical implications of
the hypothesis (conclusion).

The use of the hypothesis is a principle difference

between the scientific approach and inductive
reasoning.
Steps in the Scientific Approach
 Definition of the Problem
 Statement of a hypothesis/question
 Deductive reasoning
 Collection and Analysis of Data
 Confirmation /rejection of the hypothesis.
 The Language of Science
 Concepts such as The Marketing Concept.

 The purpose of a concept is to simplify thinking by

including a number of events under one general
heading (Service Marketing, Product, Price,
Promotion and Advertising, sales, distribution)

 and
  Constructs.
 A concept with some added information by
relatively some concepts together in a theory.
 E.g. motivation, attitudes, perception and problem
solving ability.

 When we talk about modeling, we talk

about constructs.

 E.g. A theory- building a model related to

stress with performance.
 Construct
Independent Dependent
Variable “Job stress” Variable
“Performance”

• Every one of the box is a construct but alone

outside the theory each is a concept.
 Constitutive Vs. Operational
Definition
 In any case whether concept or construct,
we have two definitions: Constitutive and
operational.

 Constitutive: a formal definition in which a

term is defined by using other terms.

 E.g. intelligence is the ability to think abstractly

 Operational Definition
 The definition that specifies those
procedures that the researchers follow in
order to measure your concept. Such as
job stress.

Variables
 Anything that varies in it’s value is a variable.
(takes different values).
 Variable
 Any concept or construct that varies or
changes in value

 Main types of variables:

 Dependent variable
 Independent variable
 Moderating variable
 Mediating variable (intervening
Variable)
 (In)dependent variables
1. Dependent variable (DV)
 Is
of primary interest to the researcher. The
goal of the research project is to understand,
predict or explain the variability of this
variable.

2. Independent variable (IV)

 Influences
the DV in either positive or
negative way. The variance in the DV is
accounted for by the IV.
 Researchers are interested in determining
how variables are related to one another.

.Types of Variables
1. Dependent: (consequence) a
consequence upon antecedent variables.

2. Independent: (antecedent) it must

happen first and then the dependent
variable.
Example
 3. Moderating Variable
 The moderating variable is one that has a
strong contingent effect on the
independent variable-dependent variable
relationship.
 That is, the presence of a third variable
(the moderating variable) modifies the
original relationship between the
independent and the dependent.
 Moderators
 Moderating variable
 Moderator is qualitative (e.g., gender, race,
class) or quantitative (e.g., level of reward)
variable that affects the direction and/or
strength of relation between independent and
dependent variable.
Workforce Organizational
Diversity Effectiveness

Managerial
Expertise
 4. Intervening Variable
 An intervening variable is one that
surfaces between the time the
independent variable (s) operate to
influence the dependent variable and their
impact on the dependent variable.

Workforce Creative Organizational

Diversity Synergy Effectiveness
Intervening
independent Dependent
Moderator
Managerial
Expertise
 Mediating variable
 Mediating variable
 surfaces between the time the independent
variables start operating to influence the
dependent variable and the time their impact
is felt on it.
 The Research Hypothesis
??? What is it
 Presents a simple form (preliminary) of a
statement- tentative proposition-
suggested solution to a problem.

 Why preliminary?
 Because we are still going to test it.
 The investigation may lead to either its
retention or rejection.
 Hypothesis
 A proposition that is empirically testable. It is an
empirical statement concerned with the
relationship among variables.

 Good hypothesis:
 Must be adequate for its purpose
 Must be testable
 Must be better than its rivals

 Can be:
 Directional
 Non-directional
 Types of Hypotheses
1. Null Hypothesis H0:

There is no positive relationship between X

and Y
2. Alternative Hypothesis H1:

There is a positive relationship between X

and Y.
 Exercise
Give the hypotheses for the following framework:

Service Customer
quality switching

Switching
cost
 Exercise
Give the hypotheses for the following framework:

Service Customer Customer

quality satisfaction switching
 Argumentation
 The expected relationships / hypotheses
are an integration of:
 Exploratory research
 Common sense and logical reasoning
 Importance of Research
?Hypothesis
Enables us to relate theory to observation
and observation to theory i.e. integrating
all knowledge pertaining to a particular
area.

A powerful tool in seeking truth and

scientific inquiry.
 Without research hypothesis we cannot deal
with inductive and deductive approaches
together.
 1- We first deduce a research hypothesis
from a theory. (deduction)
 2- Collect observation (variables) related to
testing hypothesis (induction)
 3- Relating findings to a given theory
(inductive reasoning)
 Without hypothesis we will just collect
observation but there will be no integration of
knowledge.
 Example:
 What is the role of opinion leaders in success/
failure of a new product?

 H: “There is a positive relationship between

opinion leadership and the rate at which new
products is diffused.”

 The hypothesis is a proposition relating 2

variables:
 1stvariable: opinion leadership
 2nd variable: new products diffusion rate.
 Usage of Research Hypothesis
 When the researchers knowledge is very
limited pertaining to the subject matter- in
this case it is enough to do research
questions- you cannot write any hypothesis.

 E.g. all exploratory research doesn’t have any

research hypothesis.

 Hypothesis should be based on:

 Empirical observations
 Specific theory that explains phenomena
 :Example
 Two different groups with two different supervision
(Directive versus Supportive and participative).
 H1: “There is a positive relationship between
participative leadership and employee
performance.”
 H2: “There is a negative relationship between
directive (non-participative) leadership and
employee performance.”

 H: “The performance of the group that is exposing to

participative leadership would be higher than the
performance of the group that is exposing to directive
(non-participative) leadership.
 Research questions (RQs) are
refined statements of the specific
components of the problem.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
 RQ1 How important is food for airline customers?
 H1: Food is an important factor for airline travelers.
 H2: Travelers value branded food.
 H3: Travelers prefer larger food portions, but with
consistent quality.
 H4: Travelers prefer exotic food.
Benefits of Research Hypothesis
1-Provides preliminary explanation of the
phenomena and facilitates the extension of
knowledge i.e. generalization of your results,
interrelation among knowledge can be done
through research hypothesis.

2- Provides researchers with relational statements

that are directly testable i.e. we cannot test
questions – we have to move a step further to
hypothesis.
3-The hypothesis provides direction for the
research:

 It will determine what type of data to be

collected
 It will provide also some guidance to sample
selection.
 It will also show what type of statistical
analysis can be used to test the hypothesis.

4-Research hypothesis helps the researcher to

comment and discuss the result of his analysis
reporting conclusions and for suggesting some
future studies
 Characteristics of Usable
Hypothesis
 A hypothesis should be consistent with the
existing body of knowledge.

 A hypothesis should be stated as simply and

concisely as possible.

 A hypothesis must be testable: (most important

characteristic.

 A hypothesis must state the expected

relationship between variables.
 Chapter
Three
The Research Process - The
Broad Problem Area and Defining
the Problem Statement

Presented By Dr
Eman Mohamed Abd-El-Salam
 First Review of the Literature
 Helps the researcher to:
 Structure research on work already done
 Develop problem statement with precision
and clarity

 Is beneficial in both basic and applied

research projects
 A good problem statement
 Research objective: why of the research

 Research objective applied research:

 to solve a specific problem in a work setting;
 to change something.

 Example:
 To determine factors that increase employee commitment to the
organization;

 Allows manager to increase commitment and hence to

decrease turnover, absenteeism and increase performance
levels.
 Example
The purpose of this study is twofold:

1.to identify the factors that influence the

passenger’s waiting experience and

2.to investigate the possible impact of

waiting on customer satisfaction and service
evaluations.
 A good problem statement
 Research questions:
 what of the research (what do you want to learn?)
 Translates problem into a specific need for information

 Research questions:
 Are related to the objective
 If objective is unclear we will not be able to formulate research questions

 Example:
 What are the factors that affect the perceived waiting experience of airline
passengers
 To what extent do these factors affect the perception of waiting times?
 What are the affective consequences of waiting
 How does affect mediate the relationship between waiting and service
evaluations?
 How do situational variables (such as filled time) influence customer
reactions to the waiting experience?
 Good problem statement
 Relevant
 for the organization
 Feasible
 you are able to answer the research questions
within the restrictions of the research project.
 Interesting
 to you!
 The research proposal
 The research proposal drawn up by the
investigator is the result of a planned,
organized, and careful effort.
 Research Proposal contains (1)
 Working title.
 Background of the study.
 The problem statement.
- The purpose of the study.
- Research questions.
 The scope of the study.
 The relevance of the study.
 Research Proposal contains (2)
 The research design offering details on:
a. Type of study
b. Data collection methods
c. The sampling design.
d. Data analysis.
 Time frame of the study
 Budget
 Selected bibliography.
 For the following problems Identify the
research objectives & research questions

 Advertising campaign was not very

effective.
 Employee absenteeism is very high.
 Students at AAST are not accepting the
idea of e-books.
 Football fans are not watching the
Egyptian league.

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