Chapter 2

SYSTEM MODEL REPRESENTATION

 Chapter 2 Outline

2.1 Transfer Function

2.2 Block Diagram Representation &
Signal Flow Graph
2.3 State Space Representation
2.1 Transfer Function
Definition ;
2.1 Transfer Function
Definition ;

• A method to model a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI),

differential equation system
• Defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output and input of a system [assuming that the initial
conditions are all zero]
• Able to show the input-output relationship between
variables hence, the output / response can be studied
for various forms of inputs
• However, it does not provide any information on the
physical structure of the system (black box).
2.1 Transfer Function
Definition ;

•   INPUT, r(t) TRANSFER OUTPUT, c(t)

FUNCTION,
G(s)

• Given a system with input and output signals, r(t)

and c(t) respectively, the transfer function
representation is given as below:
2.1 Transfer Function
Definition – Example | Car suspension system ;

A car’s suspension system can be

modelled by a simple mechanical
system, as shown in the figure.

This model represents ¼ of a car i.e. one

of the four wheels for a car of mass, M.
The tyre is assumed to have zero mass.
The car’s vertical movement, x will be
computed as a function of the road
disturbance, y. In this model, the spring
and damping constants are represented
as K and D respectively.
2.1 Transfer Function
Definition – Example | Car suspension system ;

Assuming that:
• INPUT : car’s vertical
movement, x(t)
• OUTPUT : road
disturbance, y(t)

Establish the transfer

function, G(s)
2.1 Transfer Function
Definition – Example | Car suspension system ;

1. Create FBD
2. Establish the dynamic
equation i.e.
mathematical model of
the system
3. Perform Laplace
transform
4. Obtain the Transfer
Function, G(s)
2.1 Transfer Function
Quiz 1 – Example | Car suspension system ;

1. Create FBD
2. Establish the dynamic
equation i.e.
mathematical model of
the system
3. Perform Laplace
transform
4. Obtain the Transfer
Function, G(s)
2.2 Block Diagram Representation
Incorporating a transfer function in a block diagram ;

• The Transfer Function[1] of the car suspension

system in the previous example can be
represented in a Block Diagram as follows :
 
Road Car’s vertical
disturbance, Y(s) movement, X(s)

[1] Neglecting gravity & mass of the tyre

2.2 Block Diagram Representation
Reduction technique algebra ;
2.2 Block Diagram Representation
Reduction technique algebra ;

1. Combining blocks in cascade

2. Moving a summing point behind a block
3. Moving a pick-off point ahead of a block
4. Moving a pick-off point behind a block
5. Moving a summing point ahead of a block
6. Eliminating a feedback loop
2.2 Block Diagram Representation
Reduction technique algebra ;
2.2 Block Diagram Representation
Reduction technique algebra – Example 1;
2.2 Block Diagram Representation
Reduction technique algebra – Example 2;
 Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
Example 1

Reduce the system shown to a single transfer function.

Rule 4
Moving a pick off
point behind a
block
Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
Example 1

Rule 1
Combining blocks
in cascade

Rule 6
Eliminating a
feedback loop
Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
Example 1
Rule 6
Eliminating a
feedback loop

Rule 1
Combining blocks
in cascade
Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
Example 1

Rule 6
Eliminating a
feedback loop
Block Diagram Representation
Quiz 2
Reduce the system shown to a single transfer function.
Block Diagram Representation
Quiz 3

Simplify the multi-loop system shown in the

following figure [Hint: start by moving the loop
in A to the left] :
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Background ;
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Rule ;
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Background ;

• Block diagrams are adequate for the

representation of the interrelationships of
controlled and input variables.
• However, for a system with reasonably
complex interrelationships, the block diagram
reduction technique is cumbersome and often
quite difficult to complete.
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Background ;

• Signal-Flow Graph (SFG) is an alternative

method to determine the relationship between
system variables based on a representation of
the linear system by line segments.
• The advantage of the SFG method is the
availability of a flow graph gain formula, which
provides the relationship between system
variables without requiring any reduction
procedure or manipulation of the flow graph.
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Terms and definitions ;
TERMS DEFINITIONS
• Node • A point representing a variable / signal
• Transmittance • A real / complex gain between two nodes
• Branch • A directed line joining 2 nodes
• Input node / source • A node that has outgoing branches
• Output node / sink • A node that has incoming branches
• Mixed node • A node that has both incoming and outgoing branches
• A traversal of connected branches in direction of the
• Path branch arrow
• Loop • A close path
• Non-touching loops • Loops that do not possess any common nodes
• A path from input node to output node that does not
• Forward path cross any node more than once
 Signal Flow Graph
• A signal flow graph is a diagram which represents a set of
simultaneous linear algebraic equations.

• When constructing a SFG, junction points or nodes are used

to represent variables.

• The nodes are connected by line segments, called branches.

• A signal can transmit through a branch only in the direction

of the arrow.

• For instance, consider that a linear system is represented by

a simple algebraic equation, which is also represented as a
SFG. Gain

Input Output
 Terms & Definitions for SFG
• Node
A point representing a variable or signal.

• Transmittance
A real gain or complex gain between two nodes.

• Branch
A directed line joining two nodes.

• Input node or source

A node that has outgoing branches.

• Output node or sink

A node that has incoming branches.

• Mixed node
A node that has both incoming and outgoing
branches.

• Path
A traversal of connected branches in direction of
the branch arrow.
 Terms & Definitions for SFG
• Loop
A close path

• Loop gain
The product of the branch transmittances of a loop

• Non-touching loops
Loops that do not possess any common nodes

• Forward path
A path from input node to output node that does not
cross any node more than once.

• Forward path gain

The product of the branch transmittances
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Example ;

•• Considering
  the following set of algebraic equations :

• The corresponding SFG :

2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Example | step-by-step SFG construction ;
Step-by-Step Construction of a SFG
Step-by-Step Construction of a SFG
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
SFG algebra ;

1. The value of the variable represented by a node is

equal to the sum of all signals entering the node.
2. The value of the variable represented by a node is
transmitted through all branches leaving the node.
3. Parallel branches in the same direction connecting two
nodes can be replaced by a single branch with the gain
equal to the sum of gains of the parallel branches.
4. A series connection of unidirectional branches can be
replaced by one branch with gain equal to the product
of branch gains.
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Mason Rule ;
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Gain formula for SFG a.k.a. Mason’s rule ;

•• The
  overall gain between the input node yin and the output
node yout of a SFG with N forward paths and L loops is given by :

where ;
o Pk = kth forward path gain
o Δ = 1 – (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of all gain products of
two non-touching loops) – (sum of all gain products of three non-
touching loops) + …
o Δk = Δ which is evaluated by eliminating all loops that touch the kth
forward path
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Procedures to solve SFG using Mason’s rule ;

1. Identify the number of forward paths and determine

the forward-path gains.
2. Identify the number of loops and determine the loop
gains.
3. Identify the non-touching loops taken two at a time,
three at a time and so on. Determine the product of
the non-touching loop gains.
4. Determine Δ and Δk.
5. Substitute all of the above information into the gain
formula.
Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Mason’s Rule

1. Identify the no. of forward

paths and determine the
forward-path gains.
Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Mason’s Rule

L4

L5
L1 L2

L3

2. Identify the no. of loops and

determine the loop gains.
Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Mason’s Rule

L4

L5
L1 L2

L3

3. Identify the non-touching loops

taken two at a time, three at a
time and so on. Determine the
product of the non-touching
loop gains.
Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Mason’s Rule

4. Determine  and  .
Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Mason’s Rule

5. Substitute into the gain

formula.
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Quiz 4 using Mason’s rule ;

Determine the gain for the SFG below, given the input
and output node as y1 and y5 respectively :

1. # forward paths = ?
2. # of loops = ?
3. # of non-touching loops = ?
4. Δ = ? ; Δk = ?
5. Substitute into gain formula / Mason’s rule = ?
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Conversion from block diagrams to SFG ;
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Conversion from block diagrams to SFG ;

1. Identify the input/output signals, summing junctions & pickoff

points ; they are replaced with nodes.
2. Interconnect the nodes & indicate the directions of signal flow
by using arrows.
3. Identify the blocks ; they are replaced with branches. For each
negative sum, a negative sign is included with the branch.
4. Add unity branches as needed for clarity or to make
connections.
5. Simplify the SFG ; eliminate redundant nodes/branches
6. Label the input / output signals and the branches accordingly.
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Conversion from block diagrams to SFG | Quiz 5 ;

Convert the following block diagram to a SFG

and determine the transfer function using the
Mason’s formula :
2.2 Signal-Flow Graph
Conversion from block diagrams to SFG | Quiz 6 ;

Determine the transfer function for the following

system represented in a block diagram, using :
a. Block diagram reduction technique
b. SFG & Mason’s formula
 Gain formula for SFG (Mason’s Rule)
Mason’s gain formula for the overall gain is given by determinant of the kth forward-path

determinant of the graph

Procedures to solve SFG by using Mason’s rule
1. Identify the no. of forward paths and determine the forward-path gains.

2. Identify the no. of loops and determine the loop gains.

3. Identify the non-touching loops taken two at a time, three at a time and so on. Determine the
product of the non-touching loop gains.

4. Determine  and  .

5. Substitute all of the above information into the gain formula:

Care must be taken when applying the gain formula to ensure that it is
applied between an input node and an output node.
Quiz 7 : Reduce the block diagram shown in figure below to a single transfer
function
2.3 State Space Representation
Background ;

• Another alternative approach in representing

a system that deals with the system in the
time-domain.
– i.e. the governing differential equations can be
worked directly thus allowing flexibility when
analyzing & designing the control system
• Able to compactly represent multiple-input,
multiple-output (MIMO) systems
2.3 State Space Representation
Background ;

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Able to deal with Multiple-Input,

Multiple-Output (MIMO) systems • Difficult to examine robustness
(stability margins) of the system
• Possible to minimize the 'error
criteria' for optimal control • Requires more work in solving
simple problems compared to
• Possible to examine the stability if 'classical control'
our system in more depth
• optimal systems require optimal
• Ideally suited to computer-based error criteria
design and analysis
2.3 State Space Representation
Terms and definitions ;
TERMS DEFINITIONS
• A set of quantities which completely determine the
• STATE OF A SYSTEM evolution of the response of a system, in the absence of
external inputs.
• STATE VARIABLES • Set of variables that define the state.
• The column vector of the nth-state variables, for nth-order
• STATE VECTOR differential equation system:
x(t) = [x1(t), x2(t), … xn(t)]

• STATE SPACE • The n-dimensional space in which the components of

the state vector are the co-ordinate axes.
• The path in state space produced by the state vector as it
• STATE TRAJECTORY changes with time.
2.3 State Space Representation
State space model ;
2.3 State Space Representation
State space model ;

•  
Consists of :
1. State equation ;

2. Output equation ;

Where A, B, C, and D are matrices that represent:

• A (n x n) = state matrix describing internal homogenous motion
• B (n x r) = input matrix that describes how r inputs affect n states
• C (m x n) = output matrix that describes how n states contribute to m outputs
• D (m x r) = direct transmission matrix that describes how r inputs are fed through m
outputs

[More will be explained in Chapter 6]

2.3 State Space Representation
State space model - Circuit;
2.3 State Space Representation
State space model to Transfer Function;
2.3 State Space Representation
Quiz 8 - State space model ;
3.1 Mechanical Systems
Quiz 9 ;

•   on the mechanical system below, obtain the

Based
transfer functions :
3.1 Mechanical Systems
Quiz 10;

•Based
  on the mechanical system below, obtain the
transfer functions :