Powertrain &

Calibration 101
John Bucknell
DaimlerChrysler
Powertrain Systems Engineering

December 4, 2006
 Powertrain & Calibration Topics
 Background
 Powertrain terms
 Thermodynamics
 Mechanical
Design
 Combustion
 Architecture
 Cylinder Filling &
Emptying
 Aerodynamics
 Calibration
 Spark & Fuel
 Transients &
Drivability
 What is a Powertrain?
 Engine that converts thermal energy to
mechanical work
 Particularly, the architecture comprising all the
subsystems required to convert this energy to
work
 Sometimes extends to drivetrain, which
connects powertrain to end-user of power
 Characteristics of Internal
Combustion Heat Engines
 High energy density of fuel leads to high power
to weight ratio, especially when combusting with
atmospheric oxygen
 External combustion has losses due to multiple
inefficiencies (primarily heat loss from
condensing of working fluid), internal
combustion has less inefficiencies
 Heat engines use working fluids which is the
simplest of all energy conversion methods
 Reciprocating Internal
Combustion Heat Engines
 Characteristics
 Slider-crank mechanism has high mechanical
efficiency (piston skirt rubbing is source of 50-
60% of all firing friction)
 Piston-cylinder mechanism has high single-
stage compression ratio capability – leads to
high thermal efficiency capability
 Fair to poor air pump, limiting power potential
without additional mechanisms
 Reciprocating Engine Terms
Vc = Clearance Volume
Vd = Displacement or Swept Volume
Vt = Total Volume
TC or TDC =
Top or Top Dead Center Position
BC or BDC =
Bottom or Bottom Dead Center
Position
Compression Ratio (CR)
Vd  Vc
CR 
Vc
Further explanation of aspects of Compression Ratio
 Reciprocating
Engines
 Most layouts created
during second World
War as aircraft
manufacturers
struggled to make the
least-compromised
installation
 Thermodynamics

 Otto Cycle
 Diesel Cycle
 Throttled Cycle
 Supercharged Cycle

Source: Internal Comb. Engine Fund.

 Thermodynamic Terms
MEP – Mean Effective Pressure
 Average cylinder pressure over measuring period

 Torque Normalized to Engine Displacement (V )

D

BMEP – Brake Mean Effective Pressure

4  Torque(Nm) 48  Torque(ftlb)
BMEP(kPa)  BMEP(psi) 
VD (liter ) VD (cu.in.)
IMEP – Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
MEP of Compression and Expansion Strokes
PMEP – Pumping Mean Effective Pressure
MEP of Exhaust and Intake Strokes
FFMEP – Firing Friction Mean Effective Pressure

BMEP = IMEP – PMEP – FFMEP

 Thermodynamic Terms continued

Work =  P  dV
Power = Work/Unit Time
Work  Cycles / Second
Power 
Re volutions / Cycle

Specific Power – Power per unit, typically

displacement or weight
Pressure/Volume Diagram – Engineering
tool to graph cylinder pressure
 Indicated Work

TDC BDC

Source: Design and Sim of Four Strokes

 Pumping Work

TDC BDC

Source: Design and Sim of Four Strokes

 History of Internal Combustion
 1878 Niklaus Otto built
first successful four
stroke engine
 1885 Gottlieb Daimler
built first high-speed four
stroke engine
 1878 saw Sir Dougald
Clerk complete first two-
stroke engine (simplified
by Joseph Day in 1891) 1891 Panhard-Levassor vehicle
with front engine built under
Daimler license
 Energy Distribution
in Passenger Car Engines

Source: SAE 2000-01-2902 (Ricardo)

 Using Exhaust Energy
 Highest expansion
ratio recovers most
thermal energy
 Turbines can recover
heat energy left over
from gas exchange
 Energy can be used to
drive turbo-
compressor or fed
back into crank train

Source: Advanced Engine Technology

 Supercharging
 Increases specific
output by increasing
charge density into
reciprocator
 Many methods of
implementation, cost
usually only limiting
factor

Source: Internal Comb. Engine Fund.

Mechanical Design
 Two Valve Valvetrain

Pushrod OHV (Type 5) HEMI 2-Valve (Type 5) SOHC 2-Valve (Type 2)

 Four Valve Valvetrain

DOHC 4-Valve (Type 2)

SOHC 4-Valve (Type 3)

DOHC 4-Valve (Type 1)

Desmodromic
 Valvetrain
 Specific Power =
f(Air Flow, Thermal Efficiency)
 Air flow is an easier variable to
change than thermal efficiency
 90% of restriction of induction
system occurs in cylinder head
 Cylinder head layouts that
allow the greatest airflow will
have highest specific power
potential
 Peak flow from poppet valve
engines primarily a function of
total valve area
 More/larger valves equals
greater valve area
 Combustion Terms
 Brake Power – Power measured by the absorber
(brake) at the crankshaft
 BSFC - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Fuel Mass Flow Rate / Brake Power
grams/kW-h or lbs/hp-h
 LBT Fuelling - Lean Best Torque
Leanest Fuel/Air to Achieve Best Torque
LBT = 0.0780-0.0800 FA or 0.85-0.9 Lambda
 Thermal Enrichment – Fuel added for cooling
due to component temperature limit
 Injector Pulse Width - Time Injector is Open
 Combustion Terms continued
 Spark Advance – Timing in crank degrees prior to TDC
for start of combustion event (ignition)

 MBT Spark – Maximum Brake Torque Spark

Minimum Spark Advance to Achieve
Best Torque
 Burn Rate – Speed of Combustion Expressed
as a fraction of total heat released versus crank degrees
 MAP - Manifold Absolute Pressure
Absolute not Gauge (does not reference barometer)
 Combustion Terms continued
 Knock – Autoignition of end-gasses in combustion
chamber, causing extreme rates of pressure rise.
 Knock Limit Spark - Maximum Spark Allowed due to
Knock – can be higher or lower than MBT
 Pre-Ignition – Autoignition of mixture prior to spark
timing, typically due to high temperatures of
components
 Combustion Stability – Cycle to cycle variation in
burn rate, trapped mass, location of peak pressure, etc.
The lower the variation the better the stability.
 Engine Architecture
Influence on Performance
 Intake & Exhaust Manifold Tuning
 Cylinder Filling & Emptying
 Momentum
 Pressure Wave
 Aerodynamics
 Flow Separation
 Wall Friction
 Junctions & Bends
 Induction Restriction
 Exhaust Restriction (Backpressure)
 Compression Ratio
 Valve Events
 Intake Tuning
for WOT Performance
 Intake manifolds have ducts (“runners”)
that tune at frequencies corresponding to
engine speed, like an organ pipe
 Longer runners tune at lower frequencies
 Shorter runners tune at higher frequencies
 Tuning increases local pressure at intake
valve thereby increasing flow rate
 Duct diameter is a trade-off between
velocity and wall friction of passing charge
 Exhaust Tuning
for WOT Performance
 Exhaust manifolds tune just as intake
manifolds do, but since no fresh charge is
being introduced as a result – not as much
impact on volumetric efficiency (~8%
maximum for headers)
 Catalyst performance usually limits
production exhaust systems that flow
acceptably with little to no tuning
 Tuned Headers
Tuned Headers WOT IMEP Exhaust Manifold Comparison
4-2-1 Tubular Header vs 4-1 Close Coupled Cast
generally do not 1500 0

appear on production 1450 -15

engines due to the 1400 -30

impairment to catalyst 1350 -45

light-off performance IMEP (kPa)/PMEP (kPa)

1300 -60

(usually a minimum of 1250 -75

150% additional
1200 -90

1150 -105
distance for cold-start 1100 -120

exhaust heat to be 1050 -135

lost). Performance 1000

1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000 6400
-150

can be enhanced by IMEP 4-2-1 1044.1 1122.8 1188.5 1226.6 1269.2 1290.5 1337.9 1390.1 1445.7 1427 1445.8 1435.4 1411.7 1337.9
1102.5 1162.2 1225.5 1252.3 1248 1262.4 1320.9 1403.6 1403.5 1406.3 1398 1367.2 1294.6
3-8% across 60% of
IMEP 4-1 Cast
PMEP 4-2-1 -5.3 -9.7 -14.2 -19.7 -23.0 -29.9 -38.4 -52.3 -64.0 -78.5 -90.8 -107.9 -122.8 -136.2
-12.5 -16.8 -20.8 -26.1 -32.0 -40.3 -54.0 -68.6 -81.0 -89.0 -99.8 -111.5 -119.5
the operating range.
PMEP 4-1 Cast
Engine Speed (rpm)
 Momentum Effects
 Pressure loss influences dictate that duct
diameter be as large as possible for minimum
friction
 Increasing charge momentum enhances cylinder
filling by extending induction process past
unsteady direct energy transfer of induction
stroke (ie piston motion)
 Decreasing duct diameter increases available
kinetic energy for a given mass flux
 Therefore duct diameter is a trade-off between
velocity and wall friction of passing charge
 Pressure Wave Effects
 Induction process and exhaust blowdown
both cause pressure pulsations
 Abrupt changes of increased cross-section
in the path of a pressure wave will reflect
a wave of opposite magnitude back down
the path of the wave
 Closed-ended ducts reflect pressure waves
directly, therefore a wave will echo with
same amplitude
 Pressure Wave Effects con’t
 Friction decreases energy of pressure
waves, therefore the 1st order reflection is
the strongest – but up to 5th order have
been utilized to good effect in high speed
engines (thus active runners in F1 in Y2K)
 Plenums also resonate and through
superposition increase the amplitude of
pressure waves in runners – small impact
relative to runner geometry
Effects of Intake Runner Geometry
Tuning in Production I4 Engine

470

450
Air Mass per Cylinder (mg)

430

410

390

370

350
1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000 6400

Trapped Mass 372 381 373 421 428 402 397 430 454 453 458 460 431 401
Engine Speed (rpm)
 Aerodynamics
 Losses due to poor aerodynamics can be
equal in magnitude to the gains from
pressure wave tuning
 Often the dominant factory in poorly
performing OE components
 If properly designed, flow of a single-entry
intake manifold can approach 98% of an
ideal entrance on a cylinder head port
(steady state on a flow bench)
 Aerodynamics con’t
 Flow Separation
 Literally same phenomenon as stall in wing
elements – pressure in free stream insufficient
to ‘push’ flow along wall of short side radius
 Recirculation pushes flow away from wall,
thereby reducing effective cross-section: so-
called “vena contracta”
 Simple guidelines can prevent flow separation
in ducts – studies performed by NACA in the
1930s empirically established the best duct
configurations
 Aerodynamics con’t
 Wall Friction
 Surface finish of ducts need to be as smooth
as possible to prevent ‘tripping’ of flow on a
macro level
 Junctions & Bends
 Everything from your fluid dynamics textbook
applies
 Radiused inlets and free-standing pipe outlets
 Minimize number of bends

 Avoid ‘S’ bends if at all possible

 Induction Restriction
 Air cleaner and intake manifolds provide
some resistance to incoming charge
 Power loss related to restriction almost
directly a function of ratio between
manifold pressure (plenum pressure
upstream of runners) and atmospheric
 Exhaust Restriction
Back Pressure Effects on Peak Power - 2.0L SOHC R/T
152

151

150
Corrected Power (c Bhp)

149

148

147

146

145
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Back Pressure (in-Hg)

Peak Power Back Bhp

 Compression Ratio
 The highest possible compression ratio is always
the design point, as higher will always be more
thermally efficient with better idle quality
 Knock limits compression ratio because of
combustion stability issues at low engine speed
due to necessary spark retard
 Most engines are designed with higher
compression than is best for low speed
combustion stability because of the associated
part-load BSFC benefits and high speed power
 Valve Events
 Valve events define how an engine breathes all
the time, and so are an important aspect of low
load as well as high load performance
 Valve events also effectively define compression
& expansion ratio, as “compression” will not
begin until the piston-cylinder mechanism is
sealed – same with expansion
 Valve Event
Timing Diagram
 Spider Plot -
Describes timing points
for valve events with
respect to Crank
Position
 Cam Centerline -
Peak Valve Lift with
respect to TDC in Crank
Degrees
 Valve Events for Power
 Maximize Trapping Efficiency
 Intake closing that is best compromise between
compression stroke back flow and induction momentum
(retard with increasing engine speed)
 Early intake closing usefulness limited at low engine speed
due to knock limit
 Early intake opening will impart some exhaust blowdown or
pressure wave tuning momentum to intake charge
 Maximize Thermal Efficiency
 Earliest intake closing to maximize compression ratio for
best burn rate (optimum is instantaneous after TDC)
 Latest exhaust opening to maximize expansion ratio for best
use of heat energy and lowest EGT (least thermal protection
enrichment beyond LBT)
 Valve Events for Power
 Minimize Flow Loss
 Achieve maximum valve lift (max flow usually at
L/D > 0.25-0.3) as long as possible (square lift
curves are optimum for poppet valves)
 Minimize Exhaust Pumping Work
 Earliest exhaust opening that blows down cylinder
pressure to backpressure levels before exhaust
stroke (advance with increasing engine speed)
 Earliest exhaust closing that avoids recompression
spike (retard with increasing engine speed)
 Centerline Effects On Torque
570

560

550

540

530

520

510
Torque (ft-lbs)

500

490

480

470

460

450

440

430

420
1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600
Engine Speed (rpm)

115 degree centerline 120 degree centerline 124 degree centerline

 Engine Power and BSFC vs Engine Speed
2006 2.4L WE BSFC MAP (g/kW-h)

1200

1100
250 110
120
100
1000
275
90
900 80
70 300
60
800
240
50

700 40
BMEP SI [kPa]

30
600
250

500

20
400
275

300
300

10 350
200
400
450
500
100 600
700

0
1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000 6400

d Speed [rpm]
 Summary
 Component’s Relative Impact on
Performance
1. Cylinder Head Ports & Valve Area
2. Valve Events
3. Intake Manifold Runner Geometry
4. Compression Ratio
5. Exhaust Header Geometry
6. Exhaust Restriction
7. Air Cleaner Restriction
 Powertrain Closing Remarks
 Powertrain is compromise
 Four-stroke engines are volumetric flow rate devices
– the only route to more power is increased engine
speed, more valve area or increased charge density
 More speed, charge density or valve area are
expensive or difficult to develop – therefore
minimizing losses is the most efficient path within
existing engine architectures
 Highest average power during a vehicle acceleration
is fastest – peak power values don’t win races
Break
 Calibration
 What is it?
 Optimizing the control system (once hardware is
finalized) for drivability, durability & emissions
 It’s just spark and fuel – how hard could it be?
 Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Combustion and
Control Theory all play in
 Fortunately race engines have no emissions
constraints and use race fuel (usually eliminates any
knock) – therefore are relatively easy to calibrate
 Calibration Terms
 Stoichiometry – Chemically correct ratio of fuel to air
for combustion
 F/A – Fuel/Air Ratio
Mass ratio of mixture, a determination of richness or
leanness. Stoichiometry = 0.0688-0.0696 FA
 Lambda – Excess Air Ratio
Stoichiometry = 1.0 Lambda
 Rich F/A – F/A greater than Stoichiometry
Rich < 1.0 Lambda
 Lean F/A – F/A less than Stoichiometry
Lean > 1.0 Lambda
 Calibration Terms continued
 Brake Power – Power measured by the absorber
(brake) at the crankshaft
 BSFC - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Fuel Mass Flow Rate / Brake Power
grams/kW-h or lbs/hp-h
 LBT Fuelling – Lean Best Torque
Leanest Fuel/Air to Achieve Best Torque
LBT = 0.0780-0.0800 FA or 0.85-0.9 Lambda
 Thermal Enrichment – Fuel added for cooling
due to exhaust component temperature limit
 Injector Pulse Width - Time Injector is Open
 Calibration Terms continued
 Spark Advance – Timing in crank degrees prior to TDC
for start of combustion event (ignition)

 MBT Spark - Maximum Brake Torque

Minimum Spark Advance to Achieve Best Torque
 Burn Rate – Speed of Combustion Expressed as
a fraction of total heat released versus crank degrees
 MAP - Manifold Absolute Pressure
Absolute not Gauge (which references barometer)
 Lean Best Torque Fuel Air Sweeps
102%

100%

98%

96%

94%
Torque Delta Factor From LBT

92%

90%

88%
Spark Held Constant During Fuel Air Sw eep
86%

84%

82%

80%

78%

76%
0.0660 0.0690 0.0720 0.0750 0.0780 0.0810 0.0840 0.0870 0.0900 0.0930 0.0960 0.0990 0.1020 0.1050 0.1080 0.1110
F/A FN

1856 RPM, 70 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 98 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 56 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 84 kPa MAP
4544 RPM, 70 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 98 kPa MAP 2688 RPM, 70 kPa MAP
 Spark Advance vs Torque
102%

100%

98%

96%
Torque Delta from MBT

94%

92%

90%

88%

86%

84%
-22 -20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Delta Spark Advance From MBT
 Control System Types
 Alpha-N
 Engine Speed & Throttle Angle
 Speed-Density
 Engine Speed and MAP/ACT
 MAF
 Engine Speed and MAF
 Alpha-N
 Fuel and spark maps are based on
throttle angle – which is very non-linear
and requires complete mapping of
engine
 Good throttle response once dialed in
 Density compensation (altitude and
temperature) is usually absent – needs to
be recalibrated every time car goes out
 Speed-Density
 Fuel and spark maps are based on MAP –
density of charge is a strong function of
pressure, corrected by air temp and coolant
temp therefore air flow is simple to calculate
 Less time-intensive than Alpha-N, once calibrated
is good – most common type of control
 Needs less mapping – can do WOT line and mid-
map then curve-fit air flow (spark needs a little
more in-depth for optimal control)
 MAF
 Fuel and spark maps are based on MAF –
airflow measured directly
 MAF sensor isn’t the most robust device
 Pressure pulses confuse signal, each application has to
be mapped with secondary damped MAF sensor (usually
a 55 gallon drum inline)
 Least noisy signal is usually at air cleaner – so separate
transport delay controls need to be calibrated for
transients and leaks need to be absolutely eliminated
 Boosted applications usually add a MAP as well
Control System Components
 Fuel System
 Injectors, Fuel pump & Regulator
 Basic Sensors
 Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) or Mass Air
Flow (MAF)
 Crank Position (Rpm & TDC)
 Cam Position (Sync)
 Air Charge Temp (ACT)
 Engine Coolant Temp (ECT)
 Knock Sensor
 Lamda Sensor
 Fuel System
 Injectors
 Volumetric flow rate solenoids, linear relationship
between pulsewidth and flow for given pressure delta Pulsewidth + Battery Offset
 Battery offset is time necessary to open and close Pulsewidth
solenoid – time is fixed for any voltage
 Duty cycle is injector on time – it’ll go static above 95%

Pintle Height
 Bernoulli relationship for different pressure deltas –
allowing differing flow rates for a given injector
 High impedance injectors have lower dynamic range
and lower amperage and thus less heat in controller
 Fuel Pump & Regulator
 Pressure needs to be sufficiently high to prevent vapour 
lock (>4bar) and low enough that engine can idle
V P
 In-tank regulation adds least heat but has line-loss as
flow rate increases, ie fuel pressure changes with flow

2
 2
 Manifold-referenced regulation can help injectors
achieve higher flow rates at elevated boost or lower V P
1
flows at low vacuum – making calibration more 1
complicated
Bernoulli Effect of Fuel Pressure
 Sensors
 Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP)
 A variable-resistance diaphragm with perfect vacuum on one side
and manifold pressure on other
 Mass Air Flow (MAF)
 A heating element followed by a temperature-sensitive element.
Heated element is maintained at a constant temperature and
based upon the measured downstream temperature the mass flow
rate can be determined
 Crank Position
 High resolution for spark advance, less-so for crank speed and
with once-per-rev can indicate TDC
 Cam Position
 Low resolution for syncronization for sequential fuel injection and
individual cylinder spark
 Air Charge Temp and Engine Coolant Temp
 Thermistors used for air density correction and startup enrichment
 Sensors, cont
 Knock Sensor
 A piezoelectric load cell that measures structural vibration.
Knock is a pressure wave that travels at local sonic velocity and
‘rings’ at a frequency that is a function of bore diameter
(typically between 14-18kHz). When the structure of the
engine (typically the block) is hit with this pressure wave it rings
as well, but at a frequency that is a function of the structure (ie
materials and geometry). A FFT analysis of different mounting
positions (nodes not anti-nodes) is necessary to determine the
‘center frequency’ to listen for knock (which is measured via in-
cylinder pressure measurements) without picking up other
structure-borne noise.
 Sensors, cont
 Lamda Sensor (EGO)
 Compares ambient air to
exhaust oxygen content
(partial pressure of oxygen).
Sensor output is essentially
binary (only indicates rich or
lean of stoichiometry).
 Wide-band Lamda Sensor EGO Schematic
(UEGO)
 Compares partial pressure of
oxygen (lean) and partial
pressure of HmCn, H2 & CO
(rich) with ambient. Gives
output from ~0.6 to 2 Lamda.
UEGO Schematic
 Calibration Goals
 Combustion & Thermodynamics
 Work, Power & Mean Effective Pressures
 Knock, Pre-Ignition
 Burn Rate
 Transients
 Wall film
 Thermal Enrichment
 Drivability
 Knock
 Causes of Knock
 Knock = f(Time,Temperature,Pressure,Octane)
 Time – Higher engine speeds or faster burn rates reduce knock
tendency. Burn rate can come from multiple spark sources,
more compact combustion chambers or increased turbulence
 Temperature – Reduced combustion temperatures reduce knock
through reduced charge temperatures (cooler incoming charge
or reduced residual burned gases), increased evaporative
cooling from richer F/A mixtures and increased combustion
chamber cooling
 Pressure – Lower cylinder pressures reduce knock tendency
through lower compression ratio or MAP pressure
 Octane – Different fuel types have higher or lower autoignition
tendencies. Octane value is directly related to knocking
tendency
 Knock continued
 Effects of Knock
 Disrupts stagnant gases that form boundary layer at
edge of combustion chamber, increasing heat transfer
to components and raising mean combustion
chamber temp that can lead to pre-ignition
 Scours oil film off cylinder wall, leading to dry friction
and increased wear of piston rings
 Shockwave can induce vibratory loads into piston pin,
piston pin bore and top land - reducing oil film
thickness and accelerating wear
 Shockwave can be strong enough to stress
components to failure
 In-cylinder Pressure Measurement

 Piezoelectric pressure
transducers develop
charge with changes
in pressure
 Installed in
combustion chamber
wall or spark plug to
measure full-cycle
pressures
Typical pressure probe installation

Passage drilled through deck face (avoiding coolant jacket)

Cylinder Pressure Trace
No Knock
 Cylinder Pressure Trace
Knock Limit or Trace Knock - Best Power
Cylinder Pressure Trace
Severe Damaging Knock
 Pre-Ignition
 Effects of Pre-Ignition
 Increases peak cylinder pressure by beginning heat
release too soon
 Increased cylinder pressure also increases heat load
to combustion chamber components, sustaining the
pre-ignition (leading to ‘run-away pre-ignition’)
 Increases loads on piston crown and piston pin
 Sustained pre-ignition will typically put a hole in the
center of the piston crown
 Burn Rate
 Burn Rate = f(Spark, Dilution Rate/FA Ratio, Chamber Volume
Distribution, Engine Speed/Mixture Motion/Turbulent Intensity)
 Spark
 Closer to MBT the faster the burn with trace knock the fastest
 Dilution Rate/FA Ratio
 Least dilution (exhaust residual or anything unburnable) fastest
 FA Ratio best rate around LBT
 Chamber Volume Distribution
 Smallest chamber with shortest flame path best (multiple ignition sources shorten
flame path)
 Engine Speed/Mixture Motion/Turbulent Intensity
 Crank angle time for complete burn nearly constant with increasing engine speed
indicating other factors speeding burn rate
 Mixture motion-contributed angular momentum conserved as cylinder volume
decreases during compression stroke, eventually breaking down into vortices
around TDC increasing kinetic energy in charge
 Turbulent Intensity a measure of total kinetic energy available to move flame front
faster than laminar flame speed. More Turbulent Intensity equals faster burn.
 Combustion & Thermodynamics
Summary
 Peak Specific Power
 LBT fuelling for best compromise between available oxygen
and charge density
 MBT spark if possible, fast burn rate assumed at peak load
 Highest engine speed to allow highest compression ratio
 Highest octane
 Peak Thermal Efficiency at desired load
 Highest compression ratio will have best combustion,
usually with highest expansion ratio for best use of thermal
energy
 MBT spark with fastest burn rate
 10% lean of stoichiometry will provide best compromise
between heat losses and pumping work, but not used
because of catalyst performance impacts in pass cars
 Transient Fuelling
 Liquid fuel does not burn, only fuel vapour
 Heat from somewhere must be used to make vapour – which
is why up to 500% more fuel must be used on a cold start to
provide sufficient vapour for engine to run (relationship
between temperature and partial pressure of fuel fractions)
 Most of heat during fully warm operation comes from back
side of intake valve and port walls
 Because of geometry a large portion of fuel wets wall – this film
travels at some fraction of free stream. Therefore some fuel from
every pulse goes into engine and some onto port wall.
 On a fast acceleration, additional fuel must be added to offset the
slowly moving wall film. Opposite true on decels.
 If injector is positioned far upstream volumetric efficiency increases
due fuel heat of vapourization cooling incoming charge, but a large
amount of wall is wetted – leading to poor transient fuel control
 Injector Targeting
Bad Tip Location

Better Tip Location

Targets Valve

Targets Port Wall

 Thermal Enrichment
 Durability
 Combustion temperatures can reach 4000 deg K and
drop to 1800 deg K before Exhaust Valve Opening
(EVO)
 Materials must operate at sufficiently low temperature
to maintain strength, so Exhaust Gas Temperature
(EGT) limits must be adhered to for sufficient
durability
 Usually 950 deg C runner temperature is acceptable
for a developed package, as low as 800 deg C for
undeveloped components may be necessary
 Primary path for cooling is additional fuel beyond
LBT, as heat of vapourization cools the charge before
ignition (pressure-charged engines primarily)
 Drivability
 Throttle Response
 Drivers expect some repeatability and
resolution of thrust versus pedal position –
some degree of spark mapping (retard) and
pedal to throttle cam can help a driver’s
confidence
 Usually least developed and of most
importance is tip-in (throttle closed to small
opening) where torque can come in as a step
change
 Closing Remarks
 Calibration is compromise
 Best spark for drivability may not produce
sufficient combustion stability or fuel
consumption
 Best fuelling for drivability is voracious fuel
consumer - decel fuel shut off can improve
economy by 20% but has tip-in torque bumps
without careful calibration
 References
 Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, John B
Heywood, 1988 McGraw-Hill
 The Design and Tuning of Competition Engines – Sixth
Edition, Philip H Smith, 1977 Robert Bentley
 The Development of Piston Aero Engines, Bill Gunston,
1993 Haynes Publishing
 Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines, Gordon
P. Blair, 1999 SAE
 Advanced Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 1995 SAE
 Vehicle and Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 1999 SAE
Q&A