Notes

Notes

Scientific Method

How Scientists Work

 How Scientists Work:
Solving the Problems
 Much of chemist deals with solving
problems
 These problems can be environmental,
ecological, health related, etc.
 No matter what types of problems
are being studied, scientists use
the same problem-solving steps
called…
 The Scientific Method
 Scientific Method
Definition
 The scientific method is-
 A logical and systematic approach or
process to problem solving. 
 An organized way of using evidence
to learn about the natural world.
 According to Wikipedia - Scientific method is a body
of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring
new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating
previous knowledge. It is based on gathering observable
, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific
principles of reasoning, the collection of data through
observation and experimentation, and the formulation
and testing of hypotheses.
 Scientific Method
Listing the Steps
 Make an Observation
 Define the Problem
 Research the Problem
 State the Hypothesis
 Experiment to test Hypothesis
 Collect and Record Data
 Analyze Data
 Draw Conclusions
 Determine Limitations
 Report Results
If needed, Do more investigation
S
C
O
I V
E E
N M R
T E V
I T I
F
I
H E
C O W
D
S Hypothesis
C
O

(Experiments)
Procedures
(Conclusions)
Findings
I V Scientific
E E Method

N M R
T E V
Data
I T I (Results)
F
I
H E Repeat steps 3-7 for competing hypotheses.
C O W Competing hypotheses may include revisions
D of the original hypothesis suggested by the
results of the testing process.
S
Here
C is another Form
Define a
/ Identify

O the
example of how Make
Hypothesis
the Problem

steps
I may go…. Observations Test Hypothesis
Perform Experiments
V
Even though we New
Experiments
show
E E
the scientific Organize and
method
M as aR series Analyze Data
N
of steps, keep in
mind Ethat newV
T NO Faulty
information or Do Experiments
I T might I
Experiments?
and Observations
thinking Support Hypothesis?
F
cause
I
Ha scientist
E to
back up and repeat YES

C
steps Oat any W
point
during the process. Communicate
D Results

Draw Valid
Conclusions
 Scientific Method
 Let’s break Ask Question

each of these Do Background

Research
steps down
into their Construct
Hypothesis
Think!
Try Again

individual Test with an

Experiment
components:
Analyze Results
Draw Conclusion

Hypothesis is False
Hypothesis is True
or Partially True

Report Results
 1. Observing
As we all know, frogs have four legs.

 Make an
observation
 See
something What’s up
unusual with these
froggies?
 Frogs with
incorrect
number of
legs!
 2. Questioning
 Recognize, state or define the
problem
 Must be in the form of a question
 The obvious question is: 
 What is causing these deformities?
 3. Researching
 Gather information related to the problem
 Read, observe, measure, take samples, etc.
 How frogs normally develop from eggs
 The % of frogs with the
deformities
 Number of other species in
the pond with deformities
 Previous or new pollutants
in the pond
 Change in amount of UV
(sunlight) exposure on eggs
 Etc.
 4. Hypothesizing

 A hypothesis is:
 An educated guess, trial answer, possible
solution, prediction
 Must be a statement
 Must be testable or measurable
 Is based on your research
and previous experience
 Hypothesizing

 List possible explanations (alternative

hypotheses) based on your previous
experience (what you already know); 
and on research you have done  
 all of the hypotheses must be testable
(no demons allowed!)
 Hypothesizing
Disease
SomeRock
Aliens
Something
Chemical
Genetic
Ultraviolet
Loud possible
from outer
Else-explanations
Pollution-
mutation-
Radiation-
(virus,
+ Roll space-etc.)-
parasite,
Music- (hypotheses)
forthis
If thehypothesis
frog deformities: is true, then:
IfGenetic
this hypothesis
Another possibility
mutation is true,
that we then:
might think of
You should be able to to
find a likely chemical pollutant in
Sorry,
If
We this
should
isChemical
the
hypothesis
predation be
deformed frog
able
orponds is true,
find the then:
disease-causing
cannibalism, which seems
Pollution
agent
If
We we (for example,
mate
should deformed
be able toparasites)
frogs
measure at
the the deformed
offspring
unusually high
Okay,
to
this
You be the
Ultraviolet
frog
levels ponds
of UV
this
isshow
should best
not
be able is
allowed
to
Radiation
radiation
testable,
explanation
isolate the for
because
chemical
atdeformities
deformed
certain
from
frog sites
kinds
the pond
should
water
of deformities similar
(frogs with missing limbs).
but
We
it
You
The is
Disease
If this
WHY
should
not
should be test
able
testable
(virus
be
deformities able
hypothesis
or
to to it???
find
use
parasite
show
should the
using
these
thatbe
is deformities
true, of
parasites
same
or...?)
the the
isolated
fairly
then,
in
levelsthe
chemical
uniform
at lab
minimum:
to
deformed
induce
can cause the frogs
theexact
exactsame
same kinds deformities
in the in the
(get
and
We Loud
These
We
lab real)
are
Rock
predictable
Scientific
should minimal
should be able
& Roll
Method. 
find frogs Music
to useand/or
predictions;  theyou may
same otherhavepond
already
parasite to
The
thought
critters
induce
Can particular
Aliens
you from
ofthink
thethe
with fact
exact deformities
outer
that
evidence
of same
other space
chemical
that
kinds ofshould
pollution
predictions their only
should
legs
deformities
based have
on be
affect
in the
this
Sheesh!
all four limbs
found
labSomething
hypothesis?
been in one
damaged
equally,
else or that other organisms from the
species
or bitten off as well
same ponds should show deformities
 5. Experimenting

 Testing the hypothesis

 Pick the hypothesis that makes the most
sense and is
easy to test
 Then design a
controlled
experiment
 Experimenting
 Go to the web site for Hartwick College to
see the experiments and how
the scientific method was
actually used to find out the
cause of recently
found frog deformities.

 http://www.hartwick.edu/biology/def_frogs/I
ntroduction/Exploration/explore.html
 Experimenting
 Let’s look at the text book example of
the Scientific Method using Redi’s Experiment
on Spontaneous Generation
 He was trying to disprove
the idea of Spontaneous
Generation (or actually
that flies came from
maggots, which came
from flies)

Francesco Redi (1668)

 Stating the Problem
 Example: How do new living
things come into being?
 Spontaneous generation once
commonly accepted
 Redi wanted to show what
caused the appearance of
maggots (and then flies) on meat
 Belief based on
prior observations
 If leaf lands on water it becomes a fish
 If bale of hay left in barn it produces mice
 Muddy soil gives rise to frogs
 Meat hung out in the market is the source
of flies
 Belief based on
prior observations
 Redi observed that maggots appeared on
meat a few days after flies were on meat
 No microscope = no way to see eggs
 But Redi believed that maggots came
from eggs that were laid by flies
 Forming a Hypothesis

Redi’s Hypothesis:
Flies produce maggots.
 How could he test this?
 Through a controlled experiment
 Redi’s Controlled
Experiment
 Redi used two groups of jars
 Jars that contained meat and no cover
 Jars that contained meat and gauze cover

Jars with meat

Uncovered jars

Covered jars
Control and Experimental
Groups
 Control group: used as a standard of
comparison
 Experimental group: the group containing
the factor (variable) that has been changed
(manipulated or independent variable)
Two groups
of jars
Uncovered jars

Covered jars
Variables in an Experiment
 Variables - Factors that can be changed
 Controlled Variables - all the variables that remain
constant
 Manipulated Variable - (also called the Independent
Variable) - factor in an experiment that a scientist
purposely changes
 Responding Variable- (also called the Dependent
Variable) - the outcome or results, factor in an experiment
that may change because of the manipulated variable….
what a scientist wants to observe
 Setting up a Controlled
Experiment
 In a controlled experiment, only
one factor is changed at a time.
 Independent variable: the
factor that is deliberately changed
 Dependent variable:
the factor that the scientist wants
to observe; it changes in response
to the independent variable
 Variables in Redi’s
Experiment
 Controlled Variables: jars, type of meat,
location, temperature, time
 Manipulated Variables:
gauze covering
that keeps flies
away from meat
Let’s think about this.…
1. Which is the control group? Uncovered jars
2. Which is the experimental group?
Covered jars
Two groups of
Jars with meat
Uncovered jars

Covered jars
 Redi’s Experiment on Spontaneous Generation
OBSERVATIONS: Flies land on meat that is left uncovered. Later, maggots appear on the meat.
HYPOTHESIS: Flies produce maggots.
PROCEDURE
Uncovered jars Covered jars

Controlled Variables:
jars, type of meat,
location, temperature,
time
Several
days pass

Manipulated Variables:
gauze covering that
keeps flies away from
meat

Responding Variable:
whether maggots
appear Maggots appear No maggots appear

CONCLUSION: Maggots form only when flies come in contact with meat. Spontaneous
generation of maggots did not occur.
6. Collect and Record Data
Data: observations and measurements
made in an experiment
Types of Recorded Data

 Quantitative - observations that

involve measurements/numbers;
i.e. 3 days, 12 maggots, 4 g, 13 sec,
8 liters
 Qualitative - observations that
do not involve numbers, are of a
descriptive nature
i.e. white maggots covered the meat,
leaves were all wilting
 7. Analyze the Data
 Examine data tables, charts,
and graphs
 Examine experimental notes
 Look for trends, patterns, and
averages
 What does the data show
 Put your data into words
 8. Draw Conclusions
 Restate the hypothesis:
Example: Flies produce maggots.
 Accept or reject the hypothesis.
 Support your conclusion with specific, numerical data.
 What was Redi’s conclusion?
 Flies lay eggs too small to be seen.
 Maggots found on rotting meat are produced
from the eggs laid by flies.
 Maggots are not appearing due to
spontaneous
generation!
9. Determine Limitations
 Scientists look for possible
flaws in their research
 They look for faulty
(inaccurate) data
 They look for experimental
error or bias's
 They decide on the validity
of their results
 They make suggestions for improvement or
raise new questions
 10. Publish Results
 Communication is an
essential part of science
 Scientists report their
results in journals,
on the internet, or
at conferences
 This allows their
experiments to be
evaluated and repeated
 Scientists can build on previous
Redi’s experiment
on insects generation
work of other scientists
 Repeating the
Investigation
 Sometimes results are unexpected.
Repeat the experiment!
 John Needham challenged Redi’s experiment
and designed his own to show that
spontaneous generation CAN occur under
certain circumstances.

 Lazzaro Spallanzini
designed a slightly
different experiment
to improve on
Needham’s work
Repeating the Experiment
(continued)

 Louis Pasteur further modified the

experiment.
 Scientific Method
How Scientists Work
Solving the Problems
The reason scientific work is called
“RE-search” rather than just "search "
is because it is an ongoing process
that often times changes our view of
the natural world. It is subject to
modification in light of new evidence
and new ways of thinking.
S

C M
E
I R
T
E
E H
V
O
I
N D
E
T W

I
 Can you put these
steps in order?
2 7 10 6 8

Define the
Analyze Data Report Results
Problem

5 1 4 9 3

Make an
State the Determine
Observation
Hypothesis Limitations the Problem
 Steps of Scientific
Method in order
1 2 3 4 5

Make an Define the State the

Observation Problem the Problem Hypothesis

6 7 8 9 10

Analyze Data Determine Report Results

Limitations
Scientific Theory
 A theory is an
explanation of a set of
related observations
or events based upon
proven hypotheses
and verified multiple
times by detached
groups of researchers
Scientific Law
Scientific Method

 Scientific laws represent

the cornerstone
of scientific discovery
 They must be simple,
true, universal, and
absolute
 If a law ever did not
apply, then all
science based
upon that law would
collapse