Advanced SQL

Some specificities of SET operations

 Example used database

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 Definition of Some Clause
 (F <comp> some r) t r such that (F <comp> t)
Where <comp> can be: 

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(5< some 5 ) = true
(5 < some tuple in the relation)
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0
(5< some 5 ) = false

0
(5 = some 5 ) = true

0
(5  some 5 ) = true (since 0  5)
Note (= some)  in
However ( some)  not in
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 Definition of all Clause

 F <comp> all r t r (F <comp> t)

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(5< all 5 ) = false
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6
(5< all 10 ) = true

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(5 = all 5 ) = false

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(5  all 6 ) = true (since 5  4 and 5  6)
( all)  not in
however (= all)  in
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 Example Query

 Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than all of the
branches located in Brooklyn.

select branch-name
from branch
where assets > all
(select assets
from branch
where branch-city = ‘Brooklyn’)

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 Example Query

 Find the names of branches that have greater assets than some of the
branches located in Brooklyn.
 .
select branch-name
from branch
where assets > some
(select assets
from branch
where branch-city = ‘Brooklyn’)
 Same query as
select distinct T.branch-name
from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and
S.branch-city = ‘Brooklyn’

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 Test for Absence of Duplicate rows
 The unique construct tests whether a sub-query has any duplicate
tuples in its result.
 Find all customers who have at most one account at the Perryridge
branch.

select T.customer-name
from depositor as T
where unique (
select R.customer-name
from account, depositor as R
where T.customer-name = R.customer-name and
R.account-number = account.account-number and
account.branch-name = ‘Perryridge’)

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 Table creation

 SQL table (relation) is defined by create table comand:

create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn,
(integrity-constraint1),
...,
(integrity-constraintk))
– r name of relation
– each Ai is name of attribute in the relation schema of r
– Di is a type of data in the domain of values for attribute Ai
 Example:
create table branch
(branch-name char(15) not null,
branch-city char(30),
assets integer)

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 Integrity rules in table definition

 not null
 primary key (A1, ..., An)
 check (P), where P is a predicate

 Example: we declare branch-name as primary key for branch and ensure

assets >=0.
 create table branch
(branch-name char(15),
branch-city char(30)
assets integer,
primary key (branch-name),
check (assets >= 0))

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 Domain Constraints
 Integrity constraints guard against accidental damage to the database, by
ensuring that authorized changes to the database do not result in a loss of data
consistency.
 Domain constraints are the most elementary form of integrity constraint.
 They test values inserted in the database, and test queries to ensure that the
comparisons make sense.
 New domains can be created from existing data types.

– example: create domain Dollars numeric(12, 2)

create domain Pounds numeric(12,2)
 We cannot assign or compare a value of type Dollars to a value of type
Pounds
– However, we can convert type as below
(cast r.A as Pounds)
(Should also multiply by the dollar-to-pound conversion-rate)

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 Integrity constraints

 Possibility of reduction of errors

– account must be greater than $10,000.00

– salary must be les than $4.00 per hour
– Client must have non-null phone number

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 One relation constraints

 not null
 primary key
 unique
 check (P ), where P is a predicate

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 Not Null constraint

 We define branch_name за branch is not null

branch_name char(15) not null

 We define domain on Dollars to be not null

create domain Dollars numeric(12,2) not null

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 Constraints on one relation

 unique ( A1, A2, …, Am)

 Asserts that attributes
A1, A2, … Am
form the key.
 Candidate keys can have null values (contrary to primary key)

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 Check clause

 check (P ), where P е predicate

Example (as before)

create table branch

(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets integer,
primary key (branch_name),
check (assets >= 0))

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 Referential integrity
 Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a given set of
attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation.
– Example: If “Perryridge” is a branch name appearing in one of the
tuples in the account relation, then there exists a tuple in the branch
relation for branch “Perryridge”.
 Primary, candidate keys and foreign keys are defined as part of SQL
create table clause:
– primary key clause list attributes that form a primary key.
– unique key clause list attributes that are candidate keys.
– foreign key clause list attributes that are foreign keys and the name
of relation that is referred. By default refere primary key attribute in
referred relation.

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 Referential Integrity in SQL – Example

create table customer

(customer_name char(20),
customer_street char(30),
customer_city char(30),
primary key (customer_name ))

create table branch

(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets numeric(12,2),
primary key (branch_name ))

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 Referential Integrity in SQL – Example(1)

create table account

(account_number char(10),
branch_name char(15),
balance integer,
primary key (account_number),
foreign key (branch_name) references branch )

create table depositor

(customer_name char(20),
account_number char(10),
primary key (customer_name, account_number),
foreign key (account_number ) references account,
foreign key (customer_name ) references customer )

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 Assertions

 An assertion is a predicate expressing a condition that we wish the

database always to satisfy.
 An assertion in SQL takes the form
create assertion <assertion-name> check <predicate>
 When an assertion is made, the system tests it for validity, and tests it
again on every update that may violate the assertion
– This testing may introduce a significant amount of overhead;
hence assertions should be used with great care.
 Asserting
for all X, P(X)
is achieved in a round-about fashion using
not exists X such that not P(X)

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 Assertion example

 Every loan has at least one borrower who maintains an account with a
minimum balance or $1000.00
create assertion balance_constraint check
(not exists (
select *
from loan
where not exists (
select *
from borrower, depositor, account
where loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number
and borrower.customer_name = depositor.customer_name
and depositor.account_number = account.account_number
and account.balance >= 1000)))

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 Assertion example (1)

 The sum of all loan amounts for each branch must be less than the
sum of all account balances at the branch.
 .
create assertion sum_constraint check
(not exists (select *
from branch
where (select sum(amount )
from loan
where loan.branch_name =
branch.branch_name )
>= (select sum (balance )
from account
where loan.branch_name =
branch.branch_name )))

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 Authorization
Forms of authorization on parts of the database:

 Read authorization - allows reading, but not modification of data.

 Insert authorization - allows insertion of new data, but not modification
of existing data.
 Update authorization - allows modification, but not deletion of data.
 Delete authorization - allows deletion of data

Forms of authorization to modify the database schema:

 Index authorization - allows creation and deletion of indices.
 Resources authorization - allows creation of new relations.
 Alteration authorization - allows addition or deletion of attributes in a
relation.
 Drop authorization - allows deletion of relations.

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 Authorization specification in SQL
 grant clause for autorization
grant <list of privilegies>
on <name relation or view> to <user list>
 <user list> е:
– user-id
– public, to all valid users
– role
 Granted privileges on views do not means granted privileges to
relations
 Authority that gives privileges must have the same or greater
privileges (administrator of DB)

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 Privileges in SQL

 select: allows read access to relation,or the ability to query using the
view
– Example: grant users U1, U2, and U3 select authorization on the
branch relation:
grant select on branch to U1, U2, U3
 insert: the ability to insert tuples
 update: the ability to update using the SQL update statement
 delete: the ability to delete tuples.
 references: ability to declare foreign keys when creating relations.
 usage: In SQL-92; authorizes a user to use a specified domain
 all privileges: used as a short form for all the allowable privileges

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 Revoking Authorization in SQL
 The revoke statement is used to revoke authorization.
revoke<privilege list>
on <relation name or view name> from <user list> [restrict|
cascade]
 Example:
revoke select on branch from U1, U2, U3 cascade
 < privilege list > could be all for all privileges.
 If<revoke-list> include public, all the user lose privileges except
those granted it explicitly
 If the same privilege was granted twice to the same user by different
grantees, the user may retain the privilege after the revocation.
 All privileges that depend on the privilege being revoked are also
revoked.

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 SQL Views

 SQL view is virtual table constructed of other real tables in DB. Do not
have own data, in the time of usage (execution) take data from existing
tables or views.
 Role
– Hide columns or rows
– Show results of calculations
– Ease complex queries in SQL
– Different levels of access to same tables
– Different triggers for different views on the same table

create view v as <query expression>

v name of view
query expression is valid predicate (expression)

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 Example creating view

 View containing all the branches and their customers

create view all-customer as
(select branch-name, customer-name
from depositor, account
where depositor.account-number = account.account-number)
union
(select branch-name, customer-name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number)
 Query on view
select customer-name
from all-customer
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’

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 Update of a View
 Update view is allowed if:
– View is based on one table without columns with null values in view
– Updates on more complex views can be difficult or may even be impossible to
evaluate, and are disallowed.
– Most SQL implementations allow updates only on simple views (without
aggregates) defined on a single relation
 Example: Create a view of all loan data in the loan relation, hiding the amount
attribute
create view branch-loan as
select branch-name, loan-number
from loan
 Add new row to view branch-loan
insert into branch-loan
values (‘Perryridge’, ‘L-307’)
This insertion must be represented by the insertion of the row
(‘L-307’, ‘Perryridge’, null)
in the table loan on which the view is based 28
 Triggers

 A trigger is a statement that is executed automatically by the system as a

side effect of a modification to the database.
 To design a trigger mechanism, we must:
– Specify the conditions under which the trigger is to be executed.
– Specify the actions to be taken when the trigger executes.
 It is related to table and views
 Tree types of trigger: BEFORE, INSTEAD OF and AFTER
 All three are declared for clauses INSERT, UPDATE, and/or DELETE
 When activated trigger in DBMS enable
– Old and new values for UPDATE
– New values for INSERTS
– Old values for DELETE

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 Use of triggers

 Enable more complex default values

 Enable control for restrictions and definition of default values
 Update views
 Enable referential integrity
 SQL Server support 6 types of triggers (only for AFTER and INSTEAD
OF trigger)

Generic syntax (reduced) for trigger

CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name

ON table_or_view_name
AFTER | BEFORE | INSTEAD OF
INSERT | UPDATE | DELETE
AS
trigger_code
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 Example

CREATE TRIGGER trig_addAuthor Create new trigger with name

trig_addAuthor for table authors activated
ON authors on INSERT
FOR INSERT
Definition could be in the same time for
AS INSERT, DELITE, UPDATE

-- Get the first and last name of new author

DECLARE @newName VARCHAR(100)
SELECT @newName = (SELECT au_fName + ‘ ' + au_lName FROM Inserted)

-- Print the name of the new author

PRINT 'New author "' + @newName + '" added.'

On INSERT clause, virtual table with name INSERTED for table authors with related
attributes is cdreated.
On insert each row in the table authors trigger is executed that write massage: New author
“name” is added
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 Example (1)

 pubs is name of database in which there is table authors

 For trigger testing on the command line of Query Analyzer (Start -> Programs ->
Microsoft SQL Server 7.0 -> Query Analyzer) and connection to the database:

USE pubs
GO

SET NOCOUNT ON

INSERT INTO authors(au_id, au_lname, au_fname, phone, address, city, state, zip, contract)
VALUES('172-85-4534', 'Doe', 'John', '123456', '1 Black Street', 'Doeville', 'CA', '90210', 0)

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Example (3)

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 Example UPDATE
CREATE TRIGGER trig_updateAuthor
ON authors
FOR UPDATE
AS

DECLARE @oldName VARCHAR(100)

DECLARE @newName VARCHAR(100)

IF NOT UPDATE(au_fName) AND NOT UPDATE(au_lName)

BEGIN
RETURN
END

SELECT @oldName = (SELECT au_fName + ' ' + au_lName FROM Deleted)

SELECT @newName = (SELECT au_fName + ' ' + au_lName FROM Inserted)

PRINT 'Name changed from "' + @oldName + '" to "' + @newName + '"'

Се креираат две нови променливи: oldName (ќе содржи вредности пред промената) и newName ќе содржи
вредности по промената. UPDATE тригер проверува дали "au_fName" и "au_lName“ полиња се ажурирани со
"UPDATE" SQL query. Се извршува тригер "trig_updateAuthor" trigger. Ако нема ажурирање се враќа контрола на
SQL server. Ако има ажурирање и на двете полиња au_fName и au_lName се земаат нивни стари имиња од
табелата DELETED I se ставаат во променливата oldName, додека новите ажурирани вредности се земаат од
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тавелата INSERTED и се ставаат во newName. Потоа и двете вредности се печатат
 Example trigger constraint definition

Arenas (ArenaID, ArenaName, City, ArenaCapacity), ArenaCapacity >= 5000

CREATE TRIGGER minseating ON Arenas /*trigger associated to Arenas*/

FOR INSERT /*executed after an insert*/
AS
DECLARE @capacity as int /*variable declarations */

SELECT @capacity = ArenaCapacity /* get values inserted */

FROM inserted
if @capacity < 5000
BEGIN
ROLLBACK /*undo the insert*/
Print 'Arena too small‘ /*message for the user*/
END
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Example trigger for referential integrity

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 Stored Procedures

 Is programm stored on the server with database is compiled in moment of usage

 Could receive parameters and return values
 Could be called from:
– standard langue
– scripting language
– SQL command prompt

 For creating
– ORACLE in PL/SQL or Java
– SQL Server inTRANSACT-SQL
 For calling:
– In ORACLE PL/SQL or Java
– In scripting languages JavaScript, VBScript
– On SQL command prompt (SQL*Plus ORACLE, Query Analyzer SQL Server

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 Advantages of stored procedure

 More secure, because they are stored on the DB server

 SQL is optimized by DBMS compiler
 Less traffic in network
 Division of the code results in:
– Less work
– Standardisation in processing
– Specialization of the development team

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 Creating and calling stored procedure

CREATE PROCEDURE proc_name

@Parameter1 type(x),
@Parameter2 type(x)
.....
AS proc_code
……

exec proc_name [@param1 = ]value1, …

Variations in SQL in various DBMS

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 Example 1. (select)

CREATE TABLE Person

(
PID numeric(9) PRIMARY KEY,
Name char(15) NOT NULL,
Surname char(15), calling
City char(15), exec SelectPerson ‘Sonja'
Faculty char(10)
)
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectPerson1
@Criteria varchar(30)
AS
Select PID, Name, Surname
FROM Person
WHERE ( Name = @Criteria)
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 Example 2

CREATE PROCEDURE SelectPerson2

@Criteria1 varchar(30),
@Criteria2 varchar(30)
AS
Select PID, Name, Surname
FROM Person
WHERE ( (Name = @Criteria1) OR (Surname = @Criteria2) )

Повикување :
exec SelectPerson2 ‘Sonja‘, ‘Georgieva ’

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 Example 3 (insert)

CREATE PROCEDURE InsertPerson

@ID int,
@Ime varchar(20),
@Prezim echar(20)
AS
INSERT INTO Person(PID, Name, Surname)
VALUES (@ID, @Ime, @Prezime)

Повикување:
exec InsertPerson 110,‘Igor', ‘Stojanovski'

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 Example

Performers (PerformerID, PerformerName, Street, City, State, Zip)

Description: Performer is inserted only if there is no name and zip in the table

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Performers (PerformerID, PerformerName, Street, City, State, Zip, ActivityID)

CREATE PROCEDURE performer_Insert

(@ID int, IF @Count > 0
@NewName char(20), BEGIN
@street char(20), PRINT 'Performer is already in the
Database'
@city char(15),
RETURN
@state char(2), END
@NewZip int) BEGIN TRANSACTION
AS INSERT INTO
DECLARE @Count as int Performers(PerformerID,
PerformerName, Street, City, State, Zip)
VALUES (@ID, @NewName, @street,
SELECT @Count = Count(*) @city, @state, @NewZip)
FROM Performers PRINT 'Performer added to database'
WHERE PerformerName=@NewName COMMIT
AND Zip = @NewZip

exec performer_Insert @ID = 10, @NewName = 'James Brown', @street ='Main',

@city ='Aiken', @state ='SC', @NewZip = 54322 44
 Triggers vs. Stored Procedures

Triggers
 Are code (program) called by DBMS only on INSERT, UPDATE and
DELITE commands
 Related are to specific table or view
 Depending on DBMS could be more than one trigger for one table or view
 With one call of trigger (e.g for INSERT) other trigger can be invoked
Stored procedures
 Code (program) called by user or DB administrator
 Is related to database nor specific table or view
 Could be used also with INSERT, UPDATE and DELITE commands
 Could be used for administration, statistic purposes, but also as a part of an
application

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