Strength of Materials for Technicians

Fourth Edition

Chapter 17
Analysis of Strain

Jan Drotsky

Lecture slides prepared by

IEA Aghachi
 What you should know
• Before you start with this unit, you should be
able to do the following:
• Distinguish between uni-axial and bi-axial
stress conditions.
• Determine the modulus of elasticity, modulus
of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio.
• Determine the circumferential and longitudinal
stresses in a thin cylinder and thin-walled
sphere subjected to an internal pressure.
 What you should know
• Determine bending stress.
• Determine principal stresses.
• Apply the conditions for static equilibrium.
• Draw a free body diagram.
 Expected Outcomes
• Upon Completion of this unit, you should be
able to do the following:
• Determine the linear strain for uni-axial, bi-
axial and tri-axial stress states.
• Determine the strain on an area in bi-axial and
tri-axial stress states.
• Determine the volumetric strain for a tri-axial
stress state.
 Expected Outcomes
• Determine the longitudinal, diametral and
volumetric strains for a circular rod subjected to an
axial stress and a constant negative pressure on its
circumference.
• Derive equations that can be used to determine
the relationship between the elastic constants of a
material.
• Determine the longitudinal, circumferential and
volumetric strains for a thin cylinder and thin-
walled spheres subjected to an internal pressure.
 Expected Outcomes
• Explain what a plane strain condition is.
• Determine from first principles and/or with the aid
of formulae the direct and shear strains at any point
and on any given plane in a material that is in a
plane strain condition.
• Determine from first principles and/or with the aid
of formulae the orientation and magnitude of the
principal strains and maximum shear strain at any
point in a material that is in a plane strain condition.
 Expected Outcomes
• Construct Möhr’s circle to determine graphically
the values indicated in the last two bullets above.
• Explain what the gauge factor for a strain gauge
is.
• Explain the difference between a quarter-, half
and full bridge.
• Explain what the function of a temperature
compensation strain gauge is.
 Expected Outcomes
• Derive equations and calculate the
magnitudes of tensile/compressive strains,
bending strains, torsional strains.
• Identify the types of strain gauges that can be
used to determine the principal strains on a
surface where the directions of the principal
strains are unknown.
 Analysis of Strain
• The first part of this chapter considers the
relationship between the principal stresses and
principal strains.
• This relationship is then used to show that there is a
relationship between the elastic constants of a
material.
• The latter part of the chapter considers the
transformation of strain, which will enable us to
determine principal strains (and principal stresses)
using strain gauges.
 Linear strain for a uni-axial stress state
• Consider the plate shown in the figure,
subjected to a principal stress σ1 (no shear
stress applied).
 Linear strain for a uni-axial stress state
• The plate will tend to deform to the shape shown
by the dotted lines.
• The strain on side W (direction 1) can be
determined using equation 2.4.

• The strain on side H (direction 2) can be

determined using equation 2.3.
 Linear strain for a bi-axial stress state
• A plate subjected to a bi-axial state of stress is
shown in figure (a).
Linear strain for a bi-axial stress state
 Linear strain for a bi-axial stress state
• Combining the effects of these two stresses we
find that for a bi-axial stress state, the principal
strain in the direction of σ1 is.
Linear strain for a bi-axial stress state
 Linear strain for a bi-axial stress state

• Consider the effects of both σ1 and σ2 on the

plate shown in the figure.
Linear strain for a bi-axial stress state
 Linear strain for a tri-axial stress state

• Stresses applied to a block of material:

• Consider the cube of material shown in the
figure.
 Stresses applied to a block of material

• The three principal strains will be:

• (17.3)
Stresses applied to a block of material

• Note that all these stresses were assumed to

be tensile.
• If one or more of these stresses are
compressive then their signs should be
changed.
 Stresses applied to a block of material
• Following a reasoning similar to that in the last
section it can be shown that the volumetric
strain.
• (17.4)
Stresses applied to a block of material
 Example 17.1
• For the block shown in figure 17.5, calculate:
(a) The strains in the x- and z-directions.
(b) The change in length of the 60 mm sides.
(c) The change in the area of the 60 × 25 mm
sides.
(d) The percentage change in volume of the
block.
 Example 17.1
(e) If the strain on the 25 mm side must be
reduced by 60%, calculate the necessary stress
in the y-direction to do this.
• E = 210 GPa; v = 0,3
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution
 Stresses applied to a circular rod
• Consider the circular rod, with a diameter D and
subjected to an axial stress and a constant
tensile stress (negative pressure) on its
circumference.
 Stresses applied to a circular rod
• The longitudinal strain:
• (17.6)

• and the diametral strain:

• (17.7)
• As before the volumetric strain:
• (17.8)
 Example 17.2
• A short length of steel rod, 40 mm diameter, just
fits inside a brass tube 2 mm thick and of the
same length. An axial compressive load of 35 kN
is applied to the steel only. Calculate:
(a) the percentage change in volume of the steel.
(b) the change in diameter of the brass tube.
• For the steel: E = 200 GPa; v = 0,28
• For the brass: E = 110 GPa; v = 0,33
 Solution
• (a) The axial load on the steel will cause a lateral
expansion of the steel that will be partly restricted
by the brass tube.
• Therefore a pressure will exist between the two
materials.
• The change in the common diameters of the steel
and brass will be equal.
• Therefore:
• Diametral strain on steel = Diametral strain on brass
(1)
 Solution
• Consider the steel (fig. (a)):

• Figure 17.7
Solution
 Solution
• Consider the brass tube (fig. 17.7 (b)):

10σD
Solution
 Solution
• Hence the circumferential strain on the tube
will be equal to the diametral strain on the
tube.
• εD(brass) = 90,91 × 10–6 σD
Solution
Relationship between the elastic constants
of a material
• Relationship between modulus of elasticity
modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio:
 Relationship between modulus of elasticity
modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio
• Consider the cube ABCD subjected to a shear
stress τxy.
• The deformed shape of the cube is shown in
figure (b) of the last slide.
• Since lines AC and BD are both inclined at an
angle of 45° to the direction of the applied
shear stress τxy, principal stress σ1 = τxy in
direction AC and σ2 = – τxy in direction BD
(equation 16.6).
Relationship between modulus of elasticity
modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio
Relationship between modulus of elasticity
modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio
Relationship between modulus of elasticity
modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio
 Relationship between modulus of elasticity
bulk modulus and Poisson’s ratio
• If a cube is subjected to a constant pressure, P,
then the volumetric strain.

• where K is the bulk modulus of the cube’s

material.
• The stresses in the three principal directions
σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = P
 Relationship between modulus of elasticity
bulk modulus and Poisson’s ratio
• The strain in any one of these directions.
 Strains in thin-walled pressure vessels
• Thin cylinder:
• Hoop and longitudinal stresses will be induced in
a thin-walled pressure vessel subjected to an
internal pressure.
 Thin cylinder
• For the vessel with diameter D and length L
shown in the figure on the last slide,
• The longitudinal strain will be:
Thin cylinder
 Example 17.3
• A thin-walled pressure vessel with a diameter
of 250 mm, wall thickness 3 mm and length
600 mm, is subjected to an internal pressure
of 2,8 MPa. Calculate:
(a) the change in length;
(b) the change in diameter; and
(c) the change in volume.
• E = 200 GPa and v = 0,3
Solution
Solution
 Example 17.4
• A thin steel cylinder with 900 mm internal diameter,
15 mm wall thickness and which is 2,5 m long is
filled with water, whereupon additional water is
pumped in to increase the pressure to 3,5 MPa.
• Calculate the additional volume of water that has to
be pumped into the cylinder to give the required
pressure.
• Neglect any distortions of the ends.
• For steel: E = 200 GPa; v = 0,3 For water: K = 2 GPa
 Solution
• Additional volume of water = ΔV of cylinder +
ΔV of the water due to pressure.
• From equation 17.13,
Solution
 Thin-walled sphere
• The hoop stress in a thin-walled sphere
subjected to an internal pressure is given by
equation 3.6:
 Plane strain

• The direction and orientation of load affects the

strain just like we found out in the analysis of
plane stress.
• We may have to consider the difference
between plane stress and plane strain for ease
of understanding of the two concept of
structural analysis.
• The next slide shows a typical strain in the xy
plane.
Plane strain
 Plane strain
• If an element is subjected to εx, εy, γxy with the
other shear strain and the z-axis strain being
equal to zero, the material is said to be under
PLANE STRAIN.
• This means that plane strain occurs when the
front and back of the material cannot displace
in the z-direction.
• In practice, this is not attainable.
• For plane stress, σz=0; 𝝉xz=0; 𝝉yz=0 as well.
 Plane strain
• Both plane strain and plane stress cannot
happen at the same time.
• In practice, an element in plane stress will
have strain in the z-direction but that strain is
not in plane strain.
 Plane strain
• Deriving the transformation equation in plane
stress, we considered the geometry only.
• For plane strain, the same applies
• The transformation for plane stress can also
be used for stresses in plane strain.
• The transformation for plane strain can also be
used for strains in plane stress.
 Plane strain
• Following similar mathematical analysis we
used in transformation equation for plane
stress.
• SS′ = a + b + c = (εx r cos θ) cos θ + (εy r sin θ)
sin θ + (γxy r sin θ) cos θ as shown in the next
slide.
Plane strain
 Transformation of equation for plane strain

• Following similar mathematical analysis we

used in transformation equation for plane
stress, the following similar equations were
obtained for plane strain.
Transformation of equation for plane strain
Transformation of equation for plane strain

• γθ represents the rotation of the line at angle θ

as well as the line at θ + 90°. The sign
conversion applicable in this case is that a
positive shear strain represents a decrease in
the angle between these two lines and a
negative sign an increase in the angle.
Transformation of equation for plane strain

• Similarly

     x   y
 Principal strain

• Also, the plane strain equation if obtain in similar

manner as we did in plane stress will yield:
• The principal strains

 xy
Tan 2 
x y
 Maximum Shear Strain
• The maximum shear strain is then given as:
 Möhr’s circle for plane strain conditions

• When a material is subjected to shear strain, γxy

will be considered to be positive if the deformation
is as shown in the deformation diagram(b) when
substituting its value into equations 17.16 to 17.20.
• For the construction of Möhr’s strain circle, γxy will
be taken as positive if the line rotates clockwise.
• Hence if γxy deforms the plate as shown in
deformation diagram(b) γxy is negative when
associated with εx (horizontal line rotates anti-
clockwise) and positive when associated with εy.
 Möhr’s circle for plane strain conditions

• This results in the co-ordinates (εx, – γxy/2))

and (εy, γxy/2) on Möhr’s strain circle.
• The only difference in the construction of
Möhr’s stress and strain circles is that γ/2 will
be used on the vertical axis instead of γ. The
reason for this is obvious if one compares, say,
equations 16.8 and 17.16.
 Example 17.5
• The following strains were measured at a point on
a material:
• εx = 400 × 10–6; εy = –300 × 10–6 and γxy = –600 × 10–
6 (the sign must be interpreted in the way outlined

above).
• (a) Calculate the principal strains and maximum
shear strain.
• (b) Calculate the linear and shear strains on a plane
inclined at an angle 35° clockwise from the positive
x-axis.
 Example 17.5
• (c) Use Möhr’s strain circle to verify the
answers obtained for (a) and (b).
• (d) Calculate the principal stresses and their
directions.
• E = 209 GPa; v = 0,3
Solution
 Solution

(the line at angle θ rotates anti-clockwise and the

line at θ + 90° clockwise)
 Solution

(The minus sign indicates that the line at angle

θ rotates anti-clockwise).
Solution
Solution
 Solution
• θ is the direction of ε1, which is the same as
the line of action of a σ1, or the plane on
which a σ2 acts.
• Hence the plane on which a σ1 occurs is 69,7°
from the positive x-axis and a σ2 occurs on a
plane –20,3° from the same axis.
 Strain gauges
• The Wheatstone bridge:
• Strain gauges are used to measure the strain on
the surface of a body caused by pressures,
moments, heat, forces, etc.
• A strain gauge, consists of a measuring grid made
from a thin metal foil, embedded between two
plastic strips.
• The plastic strips protect the grid from any
damage.
 Typical strain gauges

•The resistance R of the strain gauge changes if

it is stressed mechanically, The change in
resistance ΔR can be measured with a
Wheatstone bridge.
•The linear strain ε is proportional to the ratio
ΔR/R.
 Strain gauges
• If the proportionate factor is k, which is
generally termed the gauge factor of the strain
gauge, then
 Wheatstone bridge
• R1 to R4 are resistors which could be strain
gauges or internal resistors.
 Wheatstone bridge
• Points 1 to 4 are connectors with the input
voltage supplied over points 2 and 3 and the
output voltage is zero.
• If the resistance of one of the resistors (strain
gauges) is changed, then the output voltage will
change.
• From this the ΔR/R value can be determined. On
some bridges the gauge factor can be set and the
strain reading will then be directly available.
Different uses of Wheatstone bridge
Compensation for temperature variations

• Any variation in temperature can affect the

result of the strain gauge.
• Therefore a temperature compensating strain
gauges are used to overcome that.
 Measurement of tensile/compressive strain
• Quarter bridge:
• Use a single gauge (G1) or a gauge (G1) plus a
compensating gauge (G2). If ε is the measured
strain then the applied force can be determined
from,

• The disadvantage of this method is that any

bending or thermal strains that might be present
will influence the readings.
Measurement of tensile/compressive strain

• Full bridge:
• This is the most accurate method, since
bending strains and thermal strains are well
compensated for.
Measurement of tensile/compressive strain

• The unknown force F can be determined from,

 Measurement of bending strains
• A full bridge, as shown in figure 17.18, should
be used to eliminate disturbances due to
temperature fluctuations and normal loading.

• The bending stress,

 Measurement of torsional strains
• Torsional strains should be measured with a full
bridge to eliminate normal and bending
stresses.

• The following equations should be used to

calculate the unknown stresses:
 Direction of principal strains unknown
• If the directions of the principal stresses are
unknown, strain rosettes, should be used.
• In order to calculate the magnitudes and
directions of the principal strains we require the
magnitudes of εx, εy and γxy (equations 17.18
and 17.19).
• Since there are three unknown values, we need
three strain readings and therefore we have
three strain gauges on a rosette.
Direction of principal strains unknown

• Since strain gauges can measure only linear

strain, equation 17.16 should be used to
calculate γxy as well as εy, if it was not
measured.
• The principal stresses can then be calculated
using equation 17.1.
Strain rosettes
 Example 17.6
• Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
principal stresses at a point in a material
where the following readings were obtained
from a 45° rosette:
• εθ = 400 × 10–6; ε45 = –250 × 10–6; ε90 = –500 ×
10–6 E = 209 GPa; v = 0,3
 Solution
• If the direction of the first strain gauge is taken
to be in the x-direction.
• εx = 400 × 10–6 and εy = –500 × 10–6
 Solution

(direction of ε1 – obtained from a rough

sketch of Möhr’s strain circle)
 Solution

• The plane on which a σ1 occurs is 78° anti-

clockwise from the positive x-axis (90° from
the direction of ε1 and line of action of σ1).