Prof Syed Idris Syed Hassan

 Analog instrument
The measured parameter value displays in
analog form such as moveable pointer and
continuously measured. Error due to
parallax.
 Digital instrument
The measured parameter value display in
digital form. Error due to conversion such
quantization of signal level.
  Generalize model of simple instrument
Physical Display
Measurand measurement Signal
Variable variable
SENSOR
X S M
Physical
Process
Measurand is represented by observable physical variable X, e.g weight.
Physical measurement variable such as force that can be detected by
sensor
Sensor convert the physical variable input into signal variable. Sensor can
be in the form of electrical or mechanical.
Signal variable can be manipulated in a transmission system
Display the signal variable into either analoq or digital. The Observed
output is measurement M
Measurant Physical Var Sensor Signal Var Instrument Scale
Mass Down force Strain Pressure, Weighing Kg, Ibs,
gauge voltage machine kati
Time
Temperature
Pressure
Speed
Accelerator
Wind speed
Voltage
Common Physical variable Typical signal variable
Force Voltage
Length Displacement
Temperature Current
Acceleration Force
Velocity Pressure
Pressure Light
Frequency Frequency
Capacity
Resistance
Time
……
There are two basic characteristic for selecting
instrument for specific measuring:-

1.Static characteristic- measure unvarying

process

2.Dynamic characteristic- measure varying

process
1. Instrument-A device used to determine the
present value of a quantity under observe

2. Measurement-The process of determine the

amount, capacity comparison with standard
unit system

3. Accuracy-The degree of exactness

(closeness) of measurement compared to
the expected value.
4. Resolution- The smallest change in a
measured variable to which instrument
response. (threshold)

5. Precision- A measure of consistency or

repeatability of measurement.

Xn  X X n  measured value
Pr ecision  1 
X X  average value
6. Expected value-The design value that
calculations indicate one should expect to
measure
7. Hysterisis-the different between loading
and unloading curve due to magnetic
hysterisis of the iron. Eg. In moving iron
voltmeter.
8. Dead Zone/band-Total range of possible
values for instrument will not giving a
reading even there is a change in measured
parameter.
9. Nominal value- input and output that had
been stated by the manufacturer for user
manual.
10. Bias- A constant error that occur to
instrument when the pointer not starting
from zero scale.
11. Range-A minimum and maximum range for
instrument to operate as stated by
manufacturer
12. Sensitivity-The ratio of the change in
output of the instrument to a change of
input or measured variable
output
S
input
 Dynamic characteristic are only concerned
with the measurement of quentutues that
vary with time
The step taken before measure
1. Procedure of measurement- identify the
parameter or variable to be measured. How to
record the result.
2. Characteristic of parameter : should know the
parameter that to be measured. e,.d ac, dc,
frequency etc
3. Quality : time and cost of equipment ,
instrument ability, measurement knowledge
and suitable result.
4. Instrument : Choose a suitable equipment,e.g
multimeter, voltmeter, oscilloscope etc.
 During Measurement
1. Quality : Make sure the chosen instrument is
the best, the right position when taken the
result, frequency of measurement.
2. Safety first : Electrical shock, overload effect,
limitation of instrument.
3. Sampling : See the changing of parameter
during measurement, which value should be
taken when the parameter keep changing. Take
enough sample and it is accepted
 The step taken after measurement
1. Every data recorded must be analyzed,
statically, mathematically and the result must
be accurately and complete
In all experiment, analysis and reporting, it is
essential to perform the work reliably, use
appropriate units of measurement, and record
the values accurately
Metric Prefix Name Power term
f femto 10-15
p pico 10-12
n nano 10-9
 micro 10-6
m milli 10-3
c centi 10-2
d deci 10-1
da deca 101
h hecto 102
k kilo 103
M mega 106
G giga 109
T tera 1012
P peta 1015
Quantity Unit Symbol Value
Frequency Hertz Hz s-1
Velocity Meter/second ms-1
Acceleration Meter/sec square ms-2
Force newton N kg.m.s-2
Energy joule J N.m
Power watt W Js-1
Electric current ampere A
Electric charge coulomb C A.s
Voltage volt V J.C-1
Electric field Volt/meter V.m-1
Resistance ohm  V.A-1
Conductance siemen S -1
capacitance farad F C.V-1
Quantity Unit Symbol Value
Resistivity Ohm.meter .m
Conductivity Siemen/meter S.m-1
Magnetic flux linjage weber Wb V.s
Magnetic flux density tesla T Wb.m-2
Inductance henry H Wb.A-1
SI means International System Unit and mandated
by ISO. These SI units are
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Time second s
Mass kilogram kg
Current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of matter mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Note SI unit for mass not gram but kilogram.

Mole contains number of atom of 6 x 1023 so called
Avogadro number. In carbon equivalent to 12 gram
Constant value symbol
Speed of light (celeritus) 2.9979 x 108 m/s c
Boltmann’s constant 1.38 x 10-23 J/K k
Electron charge 1.609 x 10-19 C c
Permittivity of free space 8.85 x 10-12 F/m o
Permeability of free space 4 x 10-7 H/m o
Plank’s constant 6.626 x 10-34 J.s h
Newton’s universal gravitation 6.67 x 10-11 m3.s2 kg-1 G
constant
 Direct measurement-measuring the quantity
“face to face”.
 Indirect measurement-second quantity
inferred from the first. Eg to determine
surface temperature of sun by inferred from
color of the sun.
 Null- balancing the desired quantity by
controlling the source.eg measuring resistor
using Wheatstone bridge.
Should quote measured value in reasonable
which specifically denote the accuracy. For
example the thermometer has the small scale
0.1o C. That means the error will be + 0.05o
C. If some one quote the reading 30.04o C. Is
it reasonable or not? So this is doubtful !!!.
Then the correct one is 30.0o C.
 Error- difference between the reported value and
the true one.
 Validity-How well an instrument reflects what it is
purported to measure
 Robustness-the input of the instrument varies
slightly, does its output stably reflect the
changes . (does it unstable or chaotic?)
 Reliability- whether the measurement is consistent
when taken at very different time and condition.
 Repeatability- when repeat, does it give the same
value
Error is defined as the difference between the
true value (expected value) of the measurand
and the measured value indicated by the
instrument. Express in absolute error or as
percentage of error

Absolute errors are defined as the difference

between the expected value of the variable and
the measured value of the variable.

Relative error : Usually in percentage of

absolute error to the expected value. (also
called percentage error)
 Absolute error
Absolute error , e  Yn  X n
Yn  exp ected value
where
X n  measured value
Percentage error Yn  X n
Percentage error   100
Yn
Relative accuracy
Yn  X n
Re lative accuracy, A  1 
Yn
Percentage relative accuracy
Percentage relative accuracy, a  100%  Percentage error
 A  100%
The expected value of the voltage across a
resistor is 90V. However , the measurement
gives a value of 89V. Calculate
a)Absolute error
b)Percentage error
c)Relative accuracy
d)Percentage of accuracy

Solution
Yn =90V and Xn =89V
Absolute error , e  90  89 V  1V
Percentage error
Yn  X n 90  89
Percentage error  100  100  1.111 %
Yn 90
Relative accuracy
Yn  X n 90  89
Re lative accuracy, A  1   1
Yn 90
 1  0.0111  0.9889
Percentage of accuracy
Percentage relative accuracy, a  A 100%
 0.9889 100  98.89%
Errors categories under 3 major heading
1. Gross Errors- fault by the user reading the data such
incorrect reading or incorrect use of instrument(human
mistake).
2. Systematic Errors-due to instrument errors (improper
calibration, faulty instrument etc), environment errors
(harsh condition such high temperature, humidity,
pressure, EM field etc) and observation errors (such as
parallax ,interpolation (between two point of scale) ,
last digit bobble(fluctuate))
3. Random Errors- accumulation of large number of small
effects and concern for high degree of accuracy. Can be
analyzed using statistic . Eg manufacturing tolerances.
 Zero setting- the reading may read zero but
actually is not zero.
 Gain error- amplifiers are widely used in
instrument. A carefully calibration is needed.
 Processing error- in modern instruments
contain complex processing devices usually
related with A/D where introduce
quantization error and processing program
 Arithmetic mean
x1  x2  x3  ......  xn
Arithmetic mean, x 
n
1 n
 i 1 xi
n

where xi = i th reading taken

n = total number of readings
 Deviation
Deviation, d n  x n  x

Note: The algebraic sum of the deviation of a set

numbers from their arithmetic mean is zero
 The average deviation

d1  d 2  d 3  .....  d n
Average deviation, D 
n
Where |d1|, |d2 |, |d3 |, …..|dn|are absolute
values of deviations
 Standard deviation

2 2 2 2
d1  d 2  d 3  .....  d n
S tan dard deviation, S 
n

*** For small readings (n< 30), the denominator

is n-1
For the following given data , calculate
a) Arithmetic mean
b) Deviation of each value
c) Algebraic sum of deviations
d) The average deviation
e) The standard deviation
Given
x1= 49.7
x2= 50.1
x3= 50.2
x4= 49.6
x5= 49.7
Arithmetic mean
x1  x2  x3  ......  xn
x
n
49.7  50.1  50.2  49.6  49.7
  49.86
5
Deviation each value
d1  x1 x  49.7  49.86  0.16
d 2  x 2  x  50.1  49.86  0.24
d 3  x 3  x  50.2  49.86  0.34
d 4  x 4  x  49.6  49.86  0.26
d 5  x 5  x  49.7  49.86  0.16
The algebraic sum of the deviation is
d sum  0.16  0.24  0.34  0.26  0.16  0
Average deviation
d1  d 2  d 3  .....  d n
D
n
0.16  0.24  0.34  0.26  0.16
  0.232
5
Standard deviation
d12  d 2 2  d 32  .....  d n 2
S
n
0.16 2  0.24 2  0.34 2  0.26 2  0.162
  0.27
5 1
Most manufacturers state the instrument is
accurate within percentage of full scale.

Example + 2% of full scale. So for instrument

has full scale (eg. Voltmeter) 10V, then the
accuracy is + 0.2V. Thus the expected value
might be 9.8V or 10.2V.
 If reading taking from many instruments and
each instrument has its own error, thus when
summing the quantities
 
E  V1  V2  V3  ...Vn   V1  V2  V3  ...Vn
 eg


E  V1  V2   V1  V2 
 Difference of quantities


E  V1  V2   V1  V2 
 I

 Product of quantities
Eg- Power = IV
Total error

% error in power   %error in I    %error in V 

 Quotient of quantities
Eg – R= V/I
Total error
% error in R   %error in I    %error in V 
 Quantity Raised to a Power.
Eg Lets two quantities are A and B and they
are related by a formula AB , thus total error
can be shown to be

% error A B  B   %error in A
A 600V voltmeter is specified to be accurate
within + 2% at full scale. Calculate the limiting
error when the instrument is used to measured
a voltage of 250V.
Solution
Magnitude of Limiting error is 0.02 x 600=12V
Limiting error 250V is

12
% error   100%  4.8%
250
A voltmeter reading 70V on its 100V range and
an ammeter reading 80mA on its 150mA range
are used to determine the power dissipated in
a resistor. Both instruments are having
accuracy limitation of within + 1.5% at full
scale deflection. Determine the limiting error
of the power.