HYDROLOGY

(BFC 3092)

By:-

MR WAN AFNIZAN BIN WAN MOHAMED

DEPT. OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
FAC. OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Wan Afnizan b [email protected]
e-mail: Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
 CHAPTER 5

SURFACE RUNOFF

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 CONTENT
 RUNOFF DEFINITION
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
 THEORY OF DISCHARGE
MEASUREMENT
 DETERMINATION OF
STREAM-FLOW
 STAGE DISCHARGE RATING
CURVE Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
?
RUNOFF DEFINITION

What
is
Runoff

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 RUNOFF DEFINITION

 RUNOFF  flow over a surface.

 Draining or flowing off of precipitation.

 The output from the catchment in a given unit of time.

 The evapotranspiration, initial loss, infiltration and

detention-storage requirements  satisfied  runoff.

 Overland flow = The excess precipitation moves over the

land surfaces to reach smaller channels.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 RUNOFF DEFINITION
... Con’t

 Flows  small channels  bigger channels  larger stream 

catchment outlet.

 Surface runoff = The flow that travels all the time over the
surface as overland flow and through the channels as open-
channel flow and reaches the catchment outlet.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 RUNOFF DEFINITION
... Con’t
Clouds Rainfall

Evaporation Ov e r l a n d f l o w

Infiltration
Evaporation Interception
and depression
storage

Evaporation Soil Su b s u r f a c e f l o w
moisture

percolation
storage

runoff
Direct
Deep
Groundwater Ba s e f l o w
storage

Stream
flow
Evaporation

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Figure 5.1 : Forms of runoff in the hydrologic
KAP ; FKAAS cycle
 RUNOFF DEFINITION
... Con’t
1. Overland flow

2. Base flow of stream

Precipitation contributed by groundwater
discharge

3. Major part of absorbed water

moves laterally through the
shallow soil horizon in the
zone aeration

1
4. Some water moving through
the top soil also appears as
the return overland flow

3 4

Stream

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Figure
KAP ;5.2 : Paths of runoff
FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE

 Staff Gauge
 Wire Gauge
 Automatic Stage Recorders
a) Float – Gauge Recorder
b) Bubble – Gauge Recorder

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
... Con’t

 Stage = Water-surface elevation.

 Measured above datum (MSL or any arbitrary datum).

1. STAGE GAUGE
 Measurement ??  Elevation of the water surface in
contact with a fixed graduated staff.

 Characteristics of staff :-
 Durable material  Low coefficient of expansion
(temperature and moisture).
 Fixed rigidly to a structure (e.g: abutment, pier, wall,
etc)
 Vertical or inclined  clearly & accurately permanent
markings. Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
... Con’t

Figure 5.3 : Vertical staff gauge

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

FigureKAP
5.4; FKAAS
: Sectional staff gauge
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
... Con’t
2. WIRE GAUGE
 Measure water-surface elevation  above the surface (e.g:
bridge).
 Weight touch the water surface.
 Mechanical counter measures length of the wire paid out.
 Operating range = 25 m.

3. AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS

 More accurate compared to staff & wire gauge.
 Considerable use in stream-flow measurement practice.
 Two types :-

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
... Con’t
I FLOAT – GAUGE RECORDER

 Float  balanced by counterweight over the pulley of a

recorder.
 Displacement of float (rising / lowering)  input to recorder.
 Mechanical linkages convert angular displacement to linear
displacement of a pen.
 Operates (day, week or fortnight)  provide plot of stage vs
time.
 Analogue model.
 Improvement  digital signals transmit data-processing
centre.
 Disadvantage : Expensive.
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
... Con’t

Figure 5.5 : Stilling well installation

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
... Con’t
II BUBLE – GAUGE RECORDER
 Use compressed air or gas  at outlet bottom of the river.

 Pressure gauge measures gas pressure.

 The pressure gauge  reads water depth  transmitted to a

recorder.

 Advantages :-

 Cheaper than float – gauge ( x stilling wells).

 Measured up to 30 m change of stage.
 Inlet less get blocked or choked (constant bleeding).

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
... Con’t Instrument room

Reference level

Legend :-
1 High pressure bottle
2 Gas adjustment unit
3 Pressure point
4 Mercury manometer
5 Recorder Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
Figure 5.6 : Bubble gauge recorder
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
... Con’t
STAGE DATA

 Presented  stage hydrograph (plot of stage against time)

 Uses :-
 Determine stream discharge  flood warning & flood-
protection works.
 Peak river stages  design of hydraulic structures
(e.g : bridges, weirs).

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
Figure 5.7 : Stage hydrograph
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY

 Current Meters
a) Vertical – Axis Meter
b) Horizontal – Axis Meters

 Floats

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY

CURRENT METER

 Most commonly used  measure the velocity at a point.

 Consists of rotating element  rotates due stream current.
 Typical relationship :-

v  aN s  b ……. 5.1
which ;
v = Stream velocity (m/s)
Ns = Revolutions per second
a, b = Constants

Note : Typical values of a and b :-

For size 12.5 cm diameter  a = 0.65 and b = 0.03
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
For size 5 cm diameter
KAP; aFKAAS
= 0.30 and b = 0.003
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
... Con’t
CURRENT METER

1. VERTICAL – AXIS CURRENT METERS

 Conical cups mounted around a vertical axis.

 Cups rotate in a horizontal plane generates signals

proportional to the revolutions.

 Example : Price current meter & Gurley current meters.

 Velocities  0.15 – 4.0 m/s.

 Accuracy  1.50 % (threshold) & 0.30 % (v > 1.0 m/s).

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
... Con’t
CURRENT METER

Figure 5.8Wan
: Vertical
Afnizan b – axis
Wan current
Mohamed ; J meter
KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
... Con’t
CURRENT METER

2. HORIZONTAL – AXIS CURRENT METERS

 Propeller mounted at the end of horizontal shaft.

 Variety of size  propeller diameters 6 – 12 cm.

 Measure velocities 0.15 – 4.0 m/s.

 Accuracy  1 % (threshold) & 0.25 % (v > 0.3 m/s).

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
... Con’t
CURRENT METER

Figure 5.9 : Horizontal – axis current meter

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY

FLOATS
 Floats  released at uniform spacing at upstream section.
 Time to cross this reach by reach is noted.
 Float  leak proof & easily identifiable.
 Affected by surface winds.
 Velocity in the vertical directly  Rod float.
 Velocity can be computed using :-

S
Vs 
which;
t ……. 5.2
S = Distance traveled in time, t
 Usage :-
 Small stream in flood.
 Small stream with a rapidly changing water surface.
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
 Preliminary / KAP
exploratory
; FKAAS surveys.
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
... Con’t FLOATS

Figure 5.10 : Floats

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
Let’s take a break!!!

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
THEORY OF DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

 Discharge of stream-flow = Volume of flow rate.

 Expressed as (ft3/s) or (m3/s)

 The discharge equation :

Q   v a
A

Q   av
which ;

a = Subsection area
v = Mean velocity of subsection

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 ?
DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

What
is
Stream - Flow

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW
... Con’t

 STREAM – FLOW = Flow channel  surface runoff from

basin drains.

 Measured in (m3/s).

 Important branch of Hydrometry.

 Measurement techniques :-

a) Direct Determination / Stream Gauging

b) Indirect Determination

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW
... Con’t

A) DIRECT DETERMINATION
Mid - section
 Area-velocity methods
Mean - section
 Velocity measurement by floats
 Tracer-dilution techniques
 Electromagnetic method
 Ultrasonic method

B) INDIRECT DETERMINATION

 Hydraulic structures
 Slope – area method
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW
A) DIRECT DETERMINATION

AREA VELOCITY METHODS

1. MID – SECTION METHOD

 Measure :-
 Area of cross-section at selected section.
 Velocity of flow through cross sectional area.
 Site  with care  few years.

 Criteria adopted :-
 Stream well-defined cross-section.
 Easy accessible.
 Site straight, stable reach.
 Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
Gauging site
KAP ;free from backwater effects.
FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

AREA VELOCITY METHODS

... Con’t
1. MID – SECTION METHOD

How it is done ???

( Survey markings )

Section line Determine Divide cross - section

markings cross-section into subsections

( Current meter )
Measure Measure
average velocity depth

( Sounding ( Eco depth

DISCHARGE rods ) recorder )

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

AREA VELOCITY METHODS

... Con’t verticals

Figure 5.11 : Mid – section method

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
Note : More subsections KAP  more accurate discharge estimation !!!
used; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

AREA VELOCITY METHODS

... Con’t
1. MID – SECTION METHOD
How discharge is calculated ???
By creating tables and use equation as below :-

N 1
Q   Q1
i 1 …….. 5.3

Calculation of Q is divided into 3 parts :-

1st PART

W W  For  i = 2 to N-1 ... 5.4

Q1  y i  i  i  1  v i
 2 2  ( At middle segments )

Where ; WWan
= Width of segment
Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
y KAP
= Depth
; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

AREA VELOCITY METHODS

... Con’t
1. MID – SECTION METHOD
2nd PART

Q  v1A1 For  i = 1 ... 5.5

which; ( At first segment - left )

A1  W1 y 1

2
 W2 
 W1  2 
W1 
2W1
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP with ; v = Average velocity
; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

AREA VELOCITY METHODS

... Con’t
1. MID – SECTION METHOD
3rd PART

Q N  v N A N For  i = N ... 5.6

( At last segment - right )
which;

A N  W N y N

2
 WN  1 
 WN  
2
WN  
2 WN
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 5.1

The data pertaining to a stream-gauging operation at a gauging site are

given in the table below. The rating equation of the current meter is v
= 0.51 Ns + 0.03 m/s. Calculate the discharge in the stream.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION

i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance from left of water
0 1 3 5 7 9 11 12
edge (m) 1

Depth (m) 2 0 1.1 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.7 1.0 0

Rev. of a current meter at

0 39 58 112 90 45 30 0
0.6 depth 3
4
0 100 100 150 100 100 100 0
Duration of observation (s)

Revolutions per seconds, Ns 0 0.39 0.58 0.75 0.9 0.45 0.3 0

W 1 2 2 2 2 2 1

3  4

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION ... Con’t

1st PART At W2 & W3 …. WN-1

 W2 W3 
Q 2  y 2    v2
 2 2  i = 2 ; i+1 = 3

Find v2 ;

v 2  0.51N s  0.03
v 2  (0.51)(0.58)  0.03
v 2  0.326 m/s

Thus ;
 2 2
Q 2  ( 2)    (0.326)
 2 2
Q 2  1.304 m 3 /s
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION ... Con’t

2nd PART At W1 - Left

 Q1  v 1  A 1 i=1

Find v1 & A1 ;

v1  0.51N s  0.03 A1  W 1y 1

v1  (0.51)(0.39)  0.03
v1  0.229 m/s Which ;
2
 W2 
 W1  2 
W1 
2W1
2
 2
1  2 
W1  ; J
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed  2m
KAP ; FKAAS ( 2)(1)
SOLUTION ... Con’t

2nd PART At W1 - Left

Thus ;

2
A1  ( 2)(1.1)  2.2 m

Hence ;
Q1  (0.229)( 2.2)
Q1  0.504 m 3 /s

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION ... Con’t

3rd PART At W6 - Right

 Q 6  v 6 A 6 N=7

Find v6 & A6 ;

v 6  0.51N s  0.03 A 6  W 6 y 6
v 6  (0.51)(0.3)  0.03
v 6  0.183 m/s Which ;
2
 W6 
W
 7 
2 
W6 
2W7
2
 2
1  2 
W6  ; J
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed  2m
KAP ; FKAAS ( 2)(1)
SOLUTION ... Con’t

3rd PART At W6 - Right

Thus ;
2
A 6  ( 2)(1)  2 m

Hence ;
Q 6  (0.183)( 2)
Q 6  0.366 m 3 /s

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 SOLUTION ... Con’t

Tabulate the calculation :-

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)=(4)  (5)
Distance from Average, W Depth, y Average, A Average, v Segmental
left discharge, Qi
(m) (m) (m) (m2) (m/s) (m3/s)

0 0 0 - - -
W1
1 2 1.1 2.2 0.229 0.504
W2
3 2 2.0 4.0 0.326 1.304
W3
5 2 2.5 5.0 0.411 2.055
W4
7 2 2.0 4.0 0.336 1.344
W5
9 2 1.7 3.4 0.260 0.884
W6
11 2 1.0 2.0 0.183 0.366
W7
12 0 0 - - -
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed
TOTAL ;J
DISCHARGE = 6.457 m3/s
KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

AREA VELOCITY METHODS

... Con’t
2. MEAN – SECTION METHOD

How it is done ???

Cross-section Determine area

geometric shape

Determine mean
DISCHARGE velocity

( Current meter )

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

AREA VELOCITY METHODS

... Con’t

Figure 5.12 : Mean – section method

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
Note : More subsections KAP  more accurate discharge estimation !!!
used; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 5.2

Calculate the discharge at the river cross section shown in

Figure 5.9. Table 5.2 provides the field measurements of
width, depth, and velocity.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 ... Con’t
Table 5.2 : Data for example 5.2

Vertical section Section width Depth Mean velocity

no. (m) (m) (m/s)

0 0 0 0
1 4.2 4 2.1
2 3.3 5 2.3
3 4.8 7.2 2.7
4 5.2 7.4 2.8
5 3.7 7.1 2.5
6 5.1 4.7 2.2
7 5.9 0 0
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION ... Con’t
Tabulate the calculation :-

Sub-area Cross-sectional area Average velocity Discharge, Q

(m2) (m/s) (m3/s)
0–1 8.40 1.05 8.82
1–2 14.85 2.20 32.67
2–3 29.28 2.50 73.20
3–4 37.96 2.75 104.39
4–5 26.83 2.65 71.10
5–6 30.09 2.35 70.71
6–7 13.87 1.10 15.26
Total 161.28 376.15
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

DILUTION METHOD

 Also known as chemical method.

 Two types :-

 Sudden – injection method / gulp / integration method.

 Constant rate injection method / plateau gauging.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
2. SUDDEN – INJECTION METHOD

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Figure 5.13KAP
: Sudden
; FKAAS - injection method
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
1. SUDDEN – INJECTION METHOD

 The discharge can be calculated :-

1C1
Q ... 5.7
 t  C 2  Co  t
t2
1

which ;
1 = Tracer volume at section 1
Co = Initial concentration
C1 = Concentration at section 1
C2 = Concentration
Wan Afnizan b Wanat section; J2
Mohamed
KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
2. CONTANT RATE INJECTION
METHOD

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Figure 5.14 : KAP
Constant
; FKAASrate injection method
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
2. CONSTANT RATE INJECTION METHOD

 The discharge can be calculated :-

 C1  C2 
Q q ... 5.8
 C 2  Co 
which ;
Co = Initial concentration
C1 = Concentration at section 1
C2 = Concentration at section 2 (peak value)
q = Rate of tracer
Wan Afnizan b Wan(at constant)
Mohamed ;J
KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
2. CONSTANT RATE INJECTION METHOD

 Emphasis on :

 Steady flow.

TRACER
 Properties should :
 Not absorbed by sediment, channel boundary &
vegetation.
 Not chemically react with above surfaces.
 Not lost by evaporation.
 Non – toxic.
 Capable detected.
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
 Not expensive.KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t

TRACER
 Types :
 Chemicals (e.g : salt & sodium dichromate.
 accuracy : 1% (10 ppm).

 Fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine – WT)

 Detect until nanograms (1011)
 Small amount dye.

 Radioactive materials (Bromine – 82)

 Most accurate (picouries  1014) 
 Large – scale dilutions.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 5.3

A 25 gm/l solution of a fluorescent tracer was discharged into a

stream at a constant rate of 10 cm3/s. The background concentration
of the dye in the stream was found to be zero. At a sufficiently
distance downstream section, the dye was found to reach an equilibrium
concentration of 5 parts per billion. Estimate the stream discharge .

Given :
Co = 0 gm/m3
C1 = 25 gm/l = 0.025 gm/m3
C2 = 5  10-9 g/m3
qWan=Afnizan
10 cmb3Wan
KAP ; FKAAS
= 10 ;J 10-6 m3/s
/s Mohamed
 ... Con’t
Using equation 5.8 :

 C1  C2 
Q q
 C 2  Co 

 0.025  (5  10 9 ) 
Q  10  10-6
 5  10 9 

Q  50 m 3 / s

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD

 Based on Faraday’s principle.

 Induced magnetic field in conductor (water).

 Discharge is formulated using :-

 Ed 
Q  K1   K2
 I  ... 5.9

which ;
K1 & K2 = Constants
E = Signal output
d = Depth
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
I = Current in the coil
KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD
... Con’t

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Figure 5.15 : Electromagnetic
KAP ; FKAAS method
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD
... Con’t

 Disadvantage :-

 Involves sophisticated & expensive.

 Advantage :-

 Can be used in tidal channel.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

ULTRASOND METHOD

 Use ultrasonic signals  measure average velocity.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Figure 5.16
KAP : Ultrasonic method
; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

ULTRASOND METHOD
... Con’t

L 1 1
v   
2 cos   t1 t 2  ... 5.10

which ;

1 1 2 v p 2 v cos 
  
t1 t 2 L L

with ;
L L
t1  ; t2 
C  vp C  vp

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

ULTRASOND METHOD
... Con’t
 If single path (depth)  get area & mean velocity  “single
path gauging”.

 If multiple depth  different v at each path  “multi – path

gauging”.

 Advantages :-
 Rapid &  accuracy.
 Suitable for automatic recording.
 Handle rapid changes (magnitude & direction).

 Disadvantages :-
 Unstable cross-section.
 Fluctuating weed growth.
 High S.S. Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
 Salinity & temperature
KAP ; FKAAS changes.
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW
B) INDIRECT DETERMINATION

FLOW STRUCTURES

 Weir, flume / similar flow structure  produce control

section of flow.

 Q is a function of H measured at upstream.

 Types of flow structures :-

 Thin – plate structures (e.g : V-notch,

rectangular -notch.
 Long – base weir / broad – crested weir
(concrete /masonry).
 Flumes. Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW

SLOPE AREA METHOD

 Used when facing difficulties in velocity measurement (e.g :

large flood).

 What we do?? Take high water level, Cross section, Channel

slope and do calculation :-

1
Q  AR 2 3So1 2 ... 5.11
n
Which ;
n = Manning’s coefficient
A = Wetted area
R = Hydraulic radius
So = Wan
Channel
Afnizanslope
KAP ; FKAAS
b Wan Mohamed ; J
 STAGE DISCHARGE RATING CURVE

 Used to interpret the results.

 Plot : Stage vs Discharge.

0.2

0.16
/s)

y = 1.1444x2 - 0.0531x
Discharge Q (m
3

0.12 R 2 = 0.9808

0.08

0.04

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Stage (H) (m )

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Figure 5.17
KAP ;:FKAAS
Stage – Discharge Curve
CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS

Concentration time Drainage divide

Concentration
point /outlet
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
Figure 5.17 : Catchment area
KAP ; FKAAS
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE RUNOFF

 METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS

 Type of precipitation (rain, snow)

 Rainfall intensity
 Rainfall amount
 Rainfall duration

 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Land use
 Vegetation
 Soil type
 Drainage area
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
 Basin shape
KAP ; FKAAS
TIME’S UP …

THANK YOU
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS