Chapter one

Introduction

What is a fluid?

• Is a substance that deforms

continuously under the action of
shearing forces, however small the force
maybe.
• it is matter In its readily distortable form
so that the smallest unbalanced external
force on it causes an infinite change of
shape
 1.2 What is the study of
mechanics?
• It is concern with the study of motion and
the force applied to the body

• Branches of mechanics
• Solid body mechanics – strength of
material of materials
• Fluid mechanics
• Particle mechanics
1.3 What is fluid mechanics as a field of study?
• Fluid mechanic is the study of fluids in motion or at
rest and the subsequent effects of the fluids on the
boundaries, which may either be solid surfaces or
other fluids.

1.4 Applications of fluid mechanics

• Transmission of power e.g. braking system,
hydraulic jacks, lifts
• Spray painting
• Transportation e.g. cars, plane, river transport,
sailing
• Relocation of fluids to area where they are needed
• Power production, steam plant, car fuel ejection,
hydroelectric power
• Dam construction
• Lubrication
 1.5Difference between solids
and liquids
Solid liquid
-Definite shape - takes the shape of the
– container
-Close packing of particles -loose packed particles
-The strain is the function of the applied -the rate of change of strain is
force
Proportional
to the applied stress

Provided the elastic limit is not

exceeded
The strain in a solid is independent A fluid continues to flow as
of time over which the force is applied
long as the force is applied
and it will not

recover its original when

the force is removed
1.6.Basic equations to be applied
• Conservation of mass
• Newton’s second law
• Momentum equation
• First law of thermodynamics
 U Moving
plate
F
c b
e f A
dy
d
Y du
y

a
Stationary plate
Imagine a fluid is placed between two parallel plates distance Y
apart. The lower plate is kept stationary while the top plate is
moved with velocity U when a force F is applied. As the top
plate moves the action is as if the fluid is made up of layers
with each layer going further than the one below.
The particles close to the moving plate are moving at the same
speed with the plate and those in contact with the stationary
plate are stationary.
Experiments have shown that most fluids follow the equation
F  AU/Y
F =AU/Y
But shear stress  = F/A
  = U/Y
From similar triangle abc and def U/Y =du/dy
Then
 =du/dy……………………………………………………1.1
The above expression gives Newton’s law of viscosity
Newton (1642 –1727) postulated that for a straight and parallel motion of a
given fluid the tangential stress between two adjoining layers are
proportional to the velocity gradient in a direction perpendicular to the
layers.
Any fluid, which follows the above expression, is a Newtonian fluid
Non-Newtonian fluids
The viscosity of these fluids is not independent of the rate of shear
The examples of these are;
a). Pseudo plastics – these are solutions that have a reduced viscosity
when the rate
is large, e.g. gelatine, blood, milk, liquid cement.
b).dilatancy – their viscosity increases with increasing rate of shear
eg sugar
solution,aqueous suspension of rice starch
c).rheopectic - apparent viscosity increases with duration
d). thexotropic – apparent viscosity decreases with duration of
acting of stress
e). Plastic materials – they behave like liquids of high viscosity eg
metals close to their melting point
f).viscoelastic materials-
these possess both viscous and elastic
properties. In a steady flow
their rate of shear is constant.
Numerous empirical equations have been proposed to model the
observed relations between the shear stress  and velocity
gradient du/dy for time independent fluids. These fluids can be
represented by the power law
 = k( du/dy)n ………………………………………………………… 1.2
For a fluid that behaves as a solid until minimum yield stress is
exceeded and subsequently exhibits a linear relationship between
stress and rate of deformation is referred to as a Bingham plastic
 = o + =du/dy……………………………………………………1.3
Clay and toothpaste are examples
Shear Bingham
stress τ plastic

pseudoplastic
dilatant Newtonian

Deformation rate
du/dy
 Chapter two
Hydrostatics

2.0 Introduction
• This chapter concentrates on the study of
fluids, which are at rest. When a fluid is at
rest there is no shearing force acting and
therefore all the forces exerted between the
fluid and the boundary must act at right
angles to the boundary
2.1 Pascal’s law for pressure at a point
 δz B Ps

A δs

Px
δy C
F
θ
E δx D
Py
• Consider a small element of fluid in the form of a
triangular prism surrounding a point in the fluid. A
relationship can be established between the pressures,
which are acting on it. If the fluid is at rest there will not
be any shearing forces. Hence Px will act at right
angles to plane ABEF and Py at right angles to CDEF
and Ps at right angles to ABCD. Since the element is in
equilibrium the sum of all the forces in any direction
must be zero
• Resolving forces in the x-direction
• Force due to Px = Px ( area ABFE) =px yz
• Component of force due to ps = - ps (area ABCD) sin

= -psszy/s
• = -psszy
• Since y/s = sin
• For equilibrium in the x-direction
• px yz +( -psszy) =0
•
• Therefore; px = ps
• Resolving in the y –direction
• Force due to py = py x (area CDEF) = pyxz
• Component of force due to ps = - ps x (area ABCD) cos.
• = -psszx/s
• = -pszx
• since cos. =x/s
• Weight of element = -specific weight x volume
• = -g x ½ yzx
• The element will be in equilibrium in y-direction
• pyxz + (-pszx) +-g x ½ yzx = 0
• Neglecting the term yzx for small quantity the equation reduces to
•
• py = ps
• Hence py = ps = px
• Pascal’s law states that; the fluid pressure at any point is the same in all
directions for a fluid at rest.
 (p+δp) δA
Q

δl

z+δz
P
pδA ρgδAδl
z
• Consider a small cylinder of fluid PQ as
shown in the figure. The fluid is at rest,
hence the forces are in equilibrium, the
crosssectional area A is very small hence
pressure variation over it is negligible
• For equilibrium the algebraic sum of forces
in an direction must be zero.
• Resolving the forces in the PQ
direction
• (p+p) A -pA +gAl cos =0
• if P is at height z above some
datum, and Q is at z+z
• then the vertical difference at the
ends of cylinder is z
• and z = l cos
• the above equation simplifies to
p+gz =0
• in the limit as z  0
• dp/dz = -g - ve sign shows that
the pressure decreases with
increase in z
• p = gh
• Fluid pressure measurement

Liquid of
density
ρm h1
h2

a
b
• pressure at A =pressure due to column of
liquid of height h1
pA = g h1
pressre at B =pB =g h2
• the istrument I used to measure the
pressure in a liquid and the height required
limits the maximum pressure that can be
measured.
Mercury U-tube manometer
• pressure at pB at B =
pressure pC at C
• For the left limb ,
• pB  =pressuire at A +
pressure due to head h1 of
water
• =pA +gh1
• for left limb
• pC = pressure at D +
pressure due to head h2 of
mercury
• pD =Atmospheric pressure
=zero gauge pressure
• pC =0 + m gh2
• Since pC =pB
• PA +gh1 =m gh2
• PA = m gh2 -gh1
Measurement of pressure difference between two
liquids
• since P and Q are at the same
level in the same liquid at rest, the
pressure at P pp
• = pressure Pq at Q
• for the left limb,
• pp =PA +1ga
• for the right limb,
• PQ =PB +1gb -1gh +2gh
• But pp = pp
• PA +1ga = PB +1gb -1gh
+2gh
• PA - PB =1gb -1gh +2gh -1ga
• PA - PB =1g(b –a)
+gh(2 -1)
Inverted U- tube manometer
• It is usually ued to measure
difference in pressure of water
between two points in a pipe. The
top of the U- tube is often filled with
air which can be forced in or
released through a valve at C to
control the level of the liquid in the
guage, or the top part can be filled
with a liquid of lower density
• For equilibrium of the left limb
• PA =PD +gh1
• For equilibrium of the right limb
• PB =PE +g(h +h2)
• PA- PB = PE - PD +g(h +h2) -gh1
• The pressure at E and D are equal
• PA- PB =g(h +h2 -h1)
• PA- PB = g(h +a)