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Logical Reasoning - Logic

1) The document discusses logical reasoning and topics in logic including statements, compound statements, truth tables, logical equivalence, and quantification. 2) It defines simple and compound statements, connectives like negation and conjunction, and quantifiers like "for all" and "there exists." 3) Examples are provided to demonstrate constructing truth tables and determining logical equivalence of compound statements.

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Nurin Nazifa
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89 views25 pages

Logical Reasoning - Logic

1) The document discusses logical reasoning and topics in logic including statements, compound statements, truth tables, logical equivalence, and quantification. 2) It defines simple and compound statements, connectives like negation and conjunction, and quantifiers like "for all" and "there exists." 3) Examples are provided to demonstrate constructing truth tables and determining logical equivalence of compound statements.

Uploaded by

Nurin Nazifa
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Logical Reasoning

Topic 1: Logic
Objectives
Students should be able to
Define statements (simple and compound
statements).
Construct truth tables of statements
Determine whether two compound
statements are logically equivalent
Negate a statement
Statement
A statement is a sentence that is either definitely true (T) or false (F).
Example 1:
Decide whether or not the following are statements. In the case of a
statement, say if it is true or false.
a) Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia
b) 5  6
c) x + 1 = 2
d) Hello !
Solution:
a) Statement. True
b) Statement. False
c) Not a statement
d) Not a statement
Compound statements
A compound statement is a combination of two or more
simple statement. Statements a) and b) in Example 1 are
simple statements. There are many ways of combining
simple statements to form compound statement, but only
five connectives that are commonly used.
Connectives:
1) Negation ~ (this symbol is called tilde)
2) Conjunction 
3) Disjunction  (this symbol is called wedge)
4) Implication 
5) Equivalence 
Examples
Example 2:
Let p be the statement “I am 8 feet tall”.
What is the negation of p?
Solution:
The negation of p denoted by ~p is “I am
not 8 feet tall”.
Examples
Example 3
Let p be the statement “They are talking”
and q be the statement “The door is
closed”. Write the conjunction statement.
Solution:
The conjunction statement (denoted by p
 q) is “They are talking and the door is
closed”.
Examples
Example 4
Let p be the statement “A policeman has to
cross a river using a small boat” and q be the
statement “A thief has to cross a river using a
small boat”. Write the disjunction statement.
Solution:
The disjunction statement (denoted by p  q)
is “Either a policeman or a thief has to cross
a river using a small boat”.
Examples
Example 5
Let p be the statement “you participate in
class” and q be the statement “you will
get extra points”. Write the implication
statement p  q.
Solution:
The implication statement p  q is “If
you participate in class then you will get
extra points”.
Remark
The implication statement is also called the
conditional statement. In the “If…then” statements,
the “if-part” is called the antecedent while the “then-
part” is called the consequent. Other ways to say “If
you participate in class then you will get extra
points” are
“You participate in class only if you will get extra
points”
“You will get extra points if you participate in class”
“You participate in class implies you will get extra
points”
Examples
Example 6
Let p be the statement “He will push
button A” and q be the statement “The red
light flashes”. Write the statement p  q.
Solution:
The statement p  q is “He will push
button A if and only if the red light
flashes”.
Remark
The statement p  q is called
equivalence or biconditional. Some other
books use “” instead.
Quantifiers
Two quantifiers: Universal and Existential
 : “There exists a” or “There is a” or
“There is at least one” (existential)
: “For all” or “For every” (universal)
Some symbols: N : Set of positive integers

R : Set of real numbers


Z : Set of integers

Q : Set of rational numbers


Examples
Example 7
Let P(x) be “x is even”. Express the
following statement in symbolic form.
“For all integer x, x is even”
Solution:
 x  Z, P(x).
Examples
Example 8
Let Q(x) be “x  4”. Express the
following statement in symbolic form.
“There is a real number x such that x  4”
Solution:
 x  R, Q(x)
Negation of a statement involving a
universal quantifier
~( x P(x) ) is x ~P(x)
Example 9
Let P(x) be “x is even”. Express negation
of x  Z, P(x) in sentence.
Solution:
 x  Z, ~P(x)
There is an integer x such that x is not
even.
Negation of a statement involving an
existential quantifier
~( x Q(x) ) is x ~Q(x)
Example 10
Let Q(x) be “x  0”. Express the negation
of x  N, Q(x) in sentence.
Solution:
x  N, ~Q(x)
For all integer positive x, x  0.
Exercises:
Decide whether or not the following are statements. In the case of a statement,
say if it is true or false.
Today is raining
For every real number x, x  2
x  3
Please open that door
I am a good student
There is a positive integer x such that x  2

Express each statements in symbolic forms


Either my parents are out of town or visiting my sick neighbor
If it rains then he will not come
I will score A if and only if I study hard
For all integer a, 2a  1 is odd.
There is a real number y such that 2099  y  2100.
Truth tables
Negation:
p ~p

T F

F T
Truth tables
Conjunction:
p q pq

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F
Truth tables
Disjunction:
p q pq

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F
Truth tables
Implication:
p q pq

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T
Truth tables
Biconditional
p q pq

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T
Logically equivalent
Two compound statements are called
logically equivalent if they have the same
truth value for every possible truth value
assignment to the component statements.
Example 11
Determine whether p  q is logically
equivalent to ~q  ~p.
Logically equivalent
Solution:
Step 1: Construct truth tables for each
statement
Step 2: Compare the truth values
The statements p  q and ~q  ~p have
the same truth values.
Therefore, p  q is logically equivalent
to
~q  ~p.
Exercises
Determine whether p  q is logically
equivalent to ~p  q
Determine whether p  q is logically
equivalent to p  ~q
Negate the following statements:

a) For every positive integer r, r  1


b) There is a real number y such that 0
y1
c) 5  1 and 1  0

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