Lecture 4

DC CIRCUIT
ANALYSIS
By
Mr. Vinod Salunkhe
Assistant Professor ,
EXTC Dept
VPM’s MPCOE, Velneshwar
 Linear elements :
In an electric circuit, a linear element is an electrical element with a linear
relationship between current and voltage. Resistors are the most common
example of a linear element; other examples include capacitors, inductors,
and transformers.

Nonlinear Elements :
A nonlinear element is one which does not have a linear input/output
relation. In a diode, for example, the current is a non-linear function of the
voltage.Most semiconductor devices have non-linear characteristics.

Active Elements :
The elements which generates or produces electrical energy are called active
elements. Some of the examples are batteries,
generators,transistors,operational amplifiers,vacuum tubes etc.

Passive Elements :
All elements which consume rather than produce energy are called passive
elements, like resistors,inductors and capacitors.
 In unilateral element, voltage – current relation is not same for
both the direction. Example: Diode, Transistors.
 In bilateral element, voltage – current relation is same for both
the direction. Example: Resistor
 The voltage generated by the source does not vary with any circuit
quantity. It is only a function of time. Such a source is called an
ideal voltage Source.
 The current generated by the source does not vary with any
circuit quantity. It is only a function of time. Such a source is
called as an ideal current source.
 Resistance : It is the property of a substance which opposes the
flow of current through it. The resistance of element is denoted by
the symbol “R”. It is measured in Ohms. R = PL / A Ω
 Ohm’s Law:

The current flowing through the electric circuit is directly proportional to

the potential difference across the circuit and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the circuit, provided the temperature remains constant.

i(t) v (t) _
+
v (t) = R i(t) (2.1)
R

i(t) _ v (t)
+ _ R i(t)
v (t) = (2.2)
R
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Ohm’s Law:
Directly proportional means a straight line relationship.

v(t)
R v(t) = Ri(t)

i(t)

The resistor is a model and will not produce a straight line

for all conditions of operation.
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Ohm’s Law: About Resistors:
The unit of resistance is ohms( ).
A mathematical expression for resistance is
l
R (2.3)
A

l : The length of the conductor (meters )

A : The cross  sectional area (meters 2 )

 : The resistivity    m 
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Ohm’s Law: About Resistors:
We remember that resistance has units of ohms. The reciprocal of
resistance is conductance. At one time, conductance commonly had units
of mhos (resistance spelled backwards).

In recent years the units of conductance has been established as seimans (S).

Thus, we express the relationship between conductance and resistance as

1
G (S) (2.4)
R
We will see later than when resistors are in parallel, it is convenient
to use Equation (2.4) to calculate the equivalent resistance.
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Ohm’s Law: Ohm’s Law: Example 2.1.
Consider the following circuit.

+
115V R M S V R
(a c ) (1 0 0 W a tt lig h t b u lb )
_

Determine the resistance of the 100 Watt bulb.

V2
P  VI   I 2R (2.5)
R
V 2 1152
R   132.25 ohms
P 100
A suggested assignment is to measure the resistance of a 100 watt light
bulb with an ohmmeter. Debate the two answers.
 Circuit Definitions

Node – any point where 2 or more circuit elements

are connected together
Wires usually have negligible resistance
Each node has one voltage (w.r.t. ground)
Branch – a circuit element between two nodes
Loop – a collection of branches that form a closed
path returning to the same node without going
through any other nodes or branches twice
Example

How many nodes, branches & loops?

Three nodes
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
As a consequence of the Law of the conservation of charge, we have:

• The sum of the current entering a

node (junction point) equal to the
sum of the currents leaving.

Ia Ic

Ib Ia + Ib = Ic + Id
Id

I a, I b , I c , a n d I d c a n e a c h b e e ith e r a p o s itiv e
o r n e g a tiv e n u m b e r .
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

• The algebraic sum of the currents entering a node equal to zero.

Ia Ic

Ib Ia + Ib Ic + Id = 0
Id

I a, I b , I c, a n d I d c a n e a c h b e e ith e r a p o s itiv e
o r n e g a tiv e n u m b e r .
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

• The algebraic sum of the currents leaving a node equal to zero.

Ia Ic

Ib Ia - Ib + Ic + Id = 0
Id

I a, I b , I c, a n d I d c a n e a c h b e e ith e r a p o s itiv e
o r n e g a tiv e n u m b e r .
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Current Law: Example 2.2.
Find the current I x.

4 A
2 A

-1 A 6 A

IX
9 A
Highlight the box
then use bring to
Ans: IX = 22 A front to see answer.
14
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Current Law: Example 2.3
Find the currents IW, I X, IY, IZ.

2 A
9 A IW = -2 A
 
IX IY IX = -5 A
12 A  6 A
IZ IY = -3 A

IW IZ = -8 A
 Basic Laws of Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Kirchhoff’s current law can be generalized to include a surface.
We assume the elements within the surface are interconnected.

A closed 3D surface

We can now apply Kirchhoff’s current law in the 3 forms we discussed

with a node. The appearance might be as follows:

Currents entering and

leaving a closed surface
that contains interconnected
circuit elements
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
The algebraic sum of voltages around each loop is
zero
Beginning with one node, add voltages across each
branch in the loop
(if you encounter a + sign first) and subtract
voltages (if you encounter a – sign first)
Σ voltage drops - Σ voltage rises = 0
Or Σ voltage drops = Σ voltage rises
Circuit Analysis
When given a circuit with sources and resistors
having fixed values, you can use Kirchoff’s two
laws and Ohm’s law to determine all branch
voltages and currents

+ VAB -
A I
7Ω B
+
+
12 v 3Ω
VBC
-
-
C
Circuit Analysis
By Ohm’s law: VAB = I·7Ω and VBC = I·3Ω
By KVL: VAB + VBC – 12 v = 0
Substituting: I·7Ω + I·3Ω -12 v = 0
Solving: I = 1.2 A

+ VAB -
A I
7Ω B
+
+
12 v 3Ω
VBC
-
-
C
Example Circuit

Solve for the currents through each resistor

And the voltages across each resistor
Example Circuit
+ I1∙10Ω - + I3∙6Ω -

+ +
I2∙8Ω I3∙4Ω
- -

Using Ohm’s law, add polarities and

expressions for each resistor voltage
Example Circuit
+ I1∙10Ω - + I3∙6Ω -

+ +
I2∙8Ω I3∙4Ω
- -

Write 1st Kirchoff’s voltage law equation

-50 v + I1∙10Ω + I2∙8Ω = 0
Example Circuit
+ I1∙10Ω - + I3∙6Ω -

+ +
I2∙8Ω I3∙4Ω
- -

Write 2nd Kirchoff’s voltage law equation

-I2∙8Ω + I3∙6Ω + I3∙4Ω = 0
or I2 = I3 ∙(6+4)/8 = 1.25 ∙ I3
Example Circuit
We now have 3 equations in 3 unknowns, so we
can solve for the currents through each resistor,
that are used to find the voltage across each
resistor
Since I1 - I2 - I3 = 0, I1 = I2 + I3
Substituting into the 1st KVL equation
-50 v + (I2 + I3)∙10Ω + I2∙8Ω = 0
or I2∙18 Ω + I3∙ 10 Ω = 50 volts
Example Circuit
But from the 2nd KVL equation, I2 = 1.25∙I3
Substituting into 1st KVL equation:
(1.25 ∙ I3)∙18 Ω + I3 ∙ 10 Ω = 50 volts
Or: I3 ∙ 22.5 Ω + I3 ∙ 10 Ω = 50 volts
Or: I3∙ 32.5 Ω = 50 volts
Or: I3 = 50 volts/32.5 Ω
Or: I3 = 1.538 amps
Example Circuit
Since I3 = 1.538 amps
I2 = 1.25∙I3 = 1.923 amps
Since I1 = I2 + I3, I1 = 3.461 amps
The voltages across the resistors:
I1∙10Ω = 34.61 volts
I2∙8Ω = 15.38 volts
I3∙6Ω = 9.23 volts
I3∙4Ω = 6.15 volts
 Star Delta Transformation

 We can now solve simple series, parallel or bridge type resistive networks
using Kirchoff´s Circuit Laws, mesh current analysis or nodal voltage
analysis techniques but in a balanced 3-phase circuit we can use different
mathematical techniques to simplify the analysis of the circuit and
thereby reduce the amount of math's involved which in itself is a good
thing.
 Standard 3-phase circuits or networks take on two major forms with
names that represent the way in which the resistances are connected, a
Star connected network which has the symbol of the letter, Υ (wye) and
a Delta connected network which has the symbol of a triangle, Δ (delta).
If a 3-phase, 3-wire supply or even a 3-phase load is connected in one
type of configuration, it can be easily transformed or changed it into an
equivalent configuration of the other type by using either the Star Delta
Transformation or Delta Star Transformation process.
 A resistive network consisting of three impedances can be connected
together to form a T or "Tee" configuration but the network can also be
redrawn to form a Star or Υ type network as shown below
Delta Star Transformation
To convert a delta network to an equivalent star network we need to derive a transformation
formula for equating the various resistors to each other between the various terminals.
Consider the circuit below.

Delta to Star Network.

 Star Delta Transformation

We have seen above that when converting from a

delta network to an equivalent star network that the
resistor connected to one terminal is the product of
the two delta resistances connected to the same
terminal, for example resistor P is the product of
resistors A and B connected to terminal 1.
By rewriting the previous formulas a little we can also
find the transformation formulas for converting a
resistive star network to an equivalent delta network
giving us a way of producing a star delta
transformation as shown below.
Star to Delta Network.
Star-Delta Transformation
D.C. Transient response
The storage elements deliver their energy to the
resistances, hence the response changes with time,
gets saturated after sometime, and is referred to the
transient response.
The Differential Equation +
vr(t)
–

R +

vs(t) + C
– vc(t)
–

KVL around the loop:

vr(t) + vc(t) = vs(t)

Lect12 EEE 202 37

 RC Differential Equation(s)
t
1
From KVL: R i (t )   i ( x)dx  vs (t )
C 
Multiply by C; di (t ) dvs (t )
take derivative RC  i (t )  C
dt dt
Multiply by R; dvr (t ) dvs (t )
note vr=R·i RC  vr (t )  RC
dt dt

Lect12 EEE 202 38

LR Series Circuit
An LR Series Circuit consists basically of an inductor of
inductance L connected in series with a resistor of resistance
R. The resistance R is the DC resistive value of the wire turns
or loops that goes into making up the inductors coil.
Consider the LR series circuit below.
The above LR series circuit is connected across a constant
voltage source, (the battery) and a switch. Assume that the
switch, S is open until it is closed at a time t = 0, and then
remains permanently closed producing a "step response"
type voltage input. The current, i begins to flow through the
circuit but does not rise rapidly to its maximum value of
Imax as determined by the ratio of V / R (Ohms Law).
This limiting factor is due to the presence of the self
induced emf within the inductor as a result of the
growth of magnetic flux, (Lenz's Law). After a time the
voltage source neutralizes the effect of the self induced
emf, the current flow becomes constant and the
induced current and field are reduced to zero.
We can use Kirchoffs Voltage Law, (KVL) to define the
individual voltage drops that exist around the circuit
and then hopefully use it to give us an expression for
the flow of current.
Kirchoffs voltage law gives us:
We can see that the voltage drop across the resistor depends upon the
current, i, while the voltage drop across the inductor depends upon the rate
of change of the current, di/dt. When the current is equal to zero, ( i = 0 ) at
time t = 0 the above expression, which is also a first order differential
equation, can be rewritten to give the value of the current at any instant of
time
Expression for the Current in an LR Series Circuit

The L/R term in the above equation is known commonly as the Time
Constant, ( τ ) of the LR series circuit and V/R also represents the final
steady state current value in the circuit. Once the current reaches this
maximum steady state value at 5τ, the inductance of the coil has reduced to
zero acting more like a short circuit and effectively removing it from the
circuit. Therefore the current flowing through the coil is limited only by the
resistive element in Ohms of the coils windings. A graphical representation
of the current growth representing the voltage/time characteristics of the
circuit can be presented as.
Time constant of RC and RL
The time taken to reach 36.8% of initial current in
an RC circuit is called the time constant of RC
circuit.
Time constant (t) = RC.
The time taken to reach 63.2% of final value in a
RL Circuit is called the time constant of RL circuit.
 Time constant (t) = L / R
Important Concepts
The differential equation for the circuit Forced
(particular) and natural (complementary) solutions
Transient and steady-state responses
1st order circuits: the time constant ()
2nd order circuits: natural frequency (ω0) and the
damping ratio (ζ)
Differential Equation Solution
The total solution to any differential equation
consists of two parts:
x(t) = xp(t) + xc(t)
Particular (forced) solution is xp(t)
Response particular to a given source
Complementary (natural) solution is xc(t)
Response common to all sources, that
is, due to the “passive” circuit elements