Chapter 2

PROPERTIES OF
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 1
 Topics to be Covered

1. Strength of materials,
2. Hooke’s Law,
3. Young’s Modulus.
4. Hardness,
5. Toughness,
6. Elasticity
 Mechanical Properties of Engineering
Materials

Mechanical properties of a material determine its

behavior when it is subjected to mechanical stresses
Include strength, modulus of elasticity, hardness,
toughness, ductility, etc
Objective in Design Phase -> Withstand the stresses
without significant changes in geometry
Objective in Manufacturing Phase -> Apply the
stresses that exceed the yield strength so as to
change the shape of the part
 Stress

Stress is a measure of the intensity of the internal

forces acting within a deformable body.
Mathematically, it is a measure of the average
force per unit area of a surface within a the body
on which internal forces act
The SI unit for stress is the Pascal (symbol Pa),
which is equivalent to one Newton (force) per square
meter (unit area).
Three types of stresses -> Tensile; Compressive;
Shear
Mechanism of Stress (Tensile)
 Strain
Strain is deformation of a physical body under the action of
applied forces
It is the geometrical measure of deformation representing
the relative displacement between particles in the material
body
Strain is a dimensionless quantity
Strain accounts for elongation, shortening, or volume
changes, or angular distortion
Normal stress causes normal strain (tensile or compressive)
Shear strain is defined as the change in angle between
two originally orthogonal material lines
Stress-Strain Relationship
 Important Terms (Stress-Strain Rel.)
 Elastic Limit -> Maximum
amount of stress up to which
the deformation is absolutely
temporary
 Proportionality Limit ->
Maximum stress up to which
the relationship between
stress & strain is linear.
 Hooke’s Law -> Within elastic
limit, the strain produced in a
body is directly proportional
to the stress applied.
σ=Eε
 Important Terms (Stress-Strain Rel.)
 Young’s Modulus of elasticity
-> the ratio of the uniaxial
stress over the uniaxial strain
in the range of stress in which
Hooke's Law holds
 Elasticity -> the tendency of a
body to return to its original
shape after it has been
stretched or compressed
 Yield Point -> the stress at
which a material begins to
deform plastically
 Important Terms (Stress-Strain Rel.)
 Plasticity -> the deformation
of a material undergoing non-
reversible changes of shape in
response to applied forces
 Ultimate Strength -> It is the
maxima of the stress-strain
curve. It is the point at which
necking will start.
 Necking -> A mode of tensile
deformation where relatively
large amounts of strain
localize disproportionately in
a small region of the material
 Important Terms (Stress-Strain Rel.)
 Fracture Point -> The stress
calculated immediately before
the fracture.
 Ductility -> The amount of
strain a material can endure
before failure.
 Ductility is measured by
percentage elongation or area
reduction
 Strength of Materials

The strength of a material is its ability to withstand an

applied stress without failure
Two categories -> Yield Strength and Ultimate
Strength
Yield strength refers to the point on the engineering
stress-strain curve beyond which the material begins
deformation that cannot be reversed upon removal of the
loading
Ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering
stress-strain curve corresponding to the maximum
stress.
 Strength of Materials (contd…)

A material's strength is dependent on its

microstructure. The engineering processes to which
a material is subjected can alter this microstructure
Strengthening Mechanisms -> work hardening, solid
solution strengthening, precipitation hardening and
grain boundary strengthening
Strength and ductility have opposing relationship
 Assignment No. 1

Comprehensively describe and differentiate between

(1) Stiffness and Rigidity; and (2) Toughness
and Resilience

Only hand-written assignments are admissible

2 mutually copied assignments will be cancelled

Submission deadline: 13-FEB-2015

 Numerical Problem 1
 A test specimen in a tensile test has a gage length of 2.0 in and an
area = 0.5 in2. During the test the specimen yields under a load of
32,000 lb. The corresponding gage length = 2.0083 in. This is the
0.2 percent yield point. The maximum load = 60,000 lb is
reached at a gage length = 2.60 in. Determine: (a) yield strength
Y, (b) modulus of elasticity E, and (c) tensile strength TS
 Solution: (a) Y = 32,000/0.5 = 64,000 lb/in2
(b) δ = E e
Subtracting the 0.2% offset, e = (2.0083 - 2.0)/2.0 - 0.002 =
0.00215
E = δ/e = 64,000/0.00215 = 29.77 x 106 lb/in2
(c) TS = 60,000/0.5 = 120,000 lb/in2
 Numerical Problem 2

In previous problem, (a) determine the percent

elongation. (b) If the specimen necked to an area =
0.25 in2, determine the percent reduction in area.

Solution: (a) % elongation = (2.60 - 2.0)/2.0 =

0.6/2.0 = 0.3 = 30%
(b) % area reduction = (0.5 - 0.25)/0.5 = 0.50 = 50%
 Numerical Problem 3
In a tensile test on a metal specimen, true strain = 0.08
at a stress = 265 MPa. When the true stress = 325 MPa,
the true strain = 0.27. Determine the flow curve
parameters n and K.
Solution:
Flow Curve: σ = Kεn
(1) 265 = K(0.08)n and (2) 325 = K(0.27)n
325/265 = (0.27/0.08)n
1.2264 = (3.375)n
n ln(3.375) = ln(1.2264)
1.2164 n = 0.2041
 Numerical Problem 3

n = 0.1678
Substituting this value with the data back into the flow
curve equation, we obtain the value of the strength
coefficient K:
(1) K = 265/(0.08).1678 = 404.85 MPa
(2) K = 325/(0.27).1678 = 404.85 MPa
The flow curve equation is: σ = 404.85 ε 0.1678
 Hardness

Hardness is the property of material by virtue of

which it resists against surface indentation and
scratches.
Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by
strong intermolecular bonds
Higher is the strength higher is the hardness. Higher
is the ductility lesser is the hardness
Common examples of hard matter are diamond,
ceramics, concrete, certain metals, and superhard
materials (PcBN, PcD, etc)
 Hardness Tests (BRINELL HARDNESS
TEST)
Used for testing metals and nonmetals of low to
medium hardness
The Brinell scale characterizes the indentation
hardness of materials through the scale of
penetration of an indenter, loaded on a material test-
piece
A hardened steel (or cemented carbide) ball of
10mm diameter is pressed into the surface of a
specimen using load of 500, 1500, or 3000 kg.
 BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

where:
P = applied force (kgf)
D = diameter of indenter (mm)
d = diameter of indentation
(mm)
The resulting BHN has
units of kg/mm2, but the
units are usually omitted in
expressing the numbers
 Numerical Problem 4

In a Brinell hardness test, a 1500 kg load is pressed

into a specimen using a 10 mm diameter hardened
steel ball. The resulting indentation has a diameter =
3.2 mm. Determine the BHN for the metal.

Solution: BHN = 2(1500)/(10π(10 - (102 - 3.22).5) =

3000/(10 π x 0.5258) = 182 BHN
 Rockwell Hardness Test

Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring

the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large
load compared to the penetration made by a preload
A cone shaped indenter or small diameter ball (D =
1.6 or 3.2mm) is pressed into a specimen using a
minor load of 10kg
Then, a major load of 150kg is applied
The additional penetration distance d is converted to
a Rockwell hardness reading by the testing machine.
Rockwell Hardness Test
 Vickers Hardness Test

Uses a pyramid shaped indenter made of diamond.

Accordingly, loads of various sizes are applied,
depending on the hardness of the material to be
measured
Vickers Hardness Test

Where:
F = applied load (kg)
D = Diagonal of the impression
made the indenter (mm)
The hardness number is
determined by the load over the
surface area of the indentation
and not the area normal to the
force
 Knoop Hardness Test

It is a microhardness test - a test for mechanical hardness

used particularly for very brittle materials or thin sheets
A pyramidal diamond point is pressed into the polished
surface of the test material with a known force, for a
specified dwell time, and the resulting indentation is
measured using a microscope
Length-to-width ratio of the pyramid is 7:1
 Knoop Hardness Test (contd…)

The indenter shape facilitates reading the

impressions at lighter loads

HK = Knoop hardness value; F = load (kg); D = long

diagonal of the impression (mm)
Hardness of Metals and Ceramics
Hardness of Polymers
 TOUGHNESS

It is a property of material by virtue of which it

resists against impact loads.
Toughness is the resistance to fracture of a material
when stressed
Mathematically, it is defined as the amount of energy
per volume that a material can absorb before
rupturing
Toughness can be determined by measuring the area
(i.e., by taking the integral) underneath the stress-
strain curve
 Toughness (contd…)

Toughness =

Where
ε is strain
εf is the strain upon failure
σ is stress
The Area covered under stress
strain curve is called
toughness
 Toughness (contd…)

Toughness is measured in units of joules per cubic

meter (J/m3) in the SI system
Toughness and Strength -> A material may be
strong and tough if it ruptures under high forces,
exhibiting high strains
Brittle materials may be strong but with limited
strain values, so that they are not tough
Generally, strength indicates how much force the
material can support, while toughness indicates how
much energy a material can absorb before rupture
 Effect of Temperature on Properties

Generally speaking, materials are lower in strength

and higher in ductility, at elevated temperatures
 Hot Hardness

A property used to characterize strength and

hardness at elevated temperatures is Hot Hardness
It is the ability of a material to retain its hardness at
elevated temperatures
 Effect of Recrystallization Temperature in
Manufacturing Processes
As the material is plastically worked (i.e. strained), it
increases in strength due to strain hardening
But, if the material is heated to a sufficiently high
temperature and then deformed, strain hardening
doesn’t occur
Instead, new grains are formed that are free of
strain. This formation of new strain-free grains is
called as Recrystallization
Recrystallization temperature is about one-half of
the melting temperature of the material
 Effect of Recrystallization Temperature in
Manufacturing Processes
By heating the metal to the recrystallization
temperature prior to deformation, the amount of
strain the material can endure is increased.
Forming metals at temperatures above
recrystallization temperature is called as Hot
Working