INTRODUCTION TO RADAR

SIGNAL PROCESSIN
G
Overvie
w
■ History of Radar
■ Basic Principles
■ Principles of Measurements
■ Coherent and Doppler Processing
■ Waveforms Design and Pulse Compression
■ Closing Remarks
■ Reading Material
History – Before Radar

■ Between the World Wars, parabolic

sound mirrors, were used to provide
early warming;
■ Acoustic mirrors had a limited
effectiveness, and the increasing speed
of aircraft in the 1930s meant that they WW1 -
would already be too close to deal with WW2
by the time they had been detected.
■ Radio transmitters had already been
in use for over a decade for
communications.

Top: (L) Bombing during the WW1, (R) “Whisper

Dishes” Bottom: (L) WW2 Bombers, (R) Four-horn
acoustic locator,1930s
History – Radio Detection

■ Radar was first patented and

demonstrated in 1904 by the German
engineer Christian Hülsmeyer;
■ Watson Watt is generally credited with
initiating what would later be called
radar;
■ In June 17, 1935, a radio-based detection
and ranging was first demonstrated in
Great Britain;
■ The first Radar system used by the British
comprised 21 stations placed along the
country’s eastern coast.
Left: (T) Christian Hülsmeyer, (B) Watson Watt,
Today – Radar

■ Modern Radar are very diverse;

– Military Radars;
– Imaging Radars;
– Radar Gun;
– Automotive Radars;
– Civil Aviation Radars;
– Weather Radars;
– Ground Penetrating Radars;
Basic Principles

■ Radar is an acronym for RAdio Detection And

Ranging;
■ An object detection system that transmits
electromagnetic (EM) waves and analyses the
echoes coming from the objects;
■ Why use radar?
– Radar can operate in any weather conditions
(e.g. darkness, fog, rain);
– Radar can perform its function at long and
short ranges; Radar vs. optical image, penetration of
– Radar can provide measurements in high clouding, ©Cassidian radar, ©Eurimage,
accuracy. optical.
 Radar Categorisation
Interrogator Transponder
■ Operation:
– Primary: Target monitoring; Illuminator Radar
– Secondary: Transponder on the target (Fig.);
■ Illuminator:
– Active: Uses its transmitter to illuminate the target;
– Passive: Exploit illuminators of opportunity (Fig.); T
■ Transmission rate: R
– Pulsed: Emit separated pulses;
– Continuous Wave (CW): Constant transmission (Fig.);
■ Geometry:
– Monostatic: Transmitter and receiver in the same location (Fig. Left);
– Bistatic: Transmitter and receiver in separate locations (Fig. Right).
Monostatic Bistatic
Operating Principles
■ The simplest radar operation can be divided into 4 steps:
1. The radar is transmitting an EM pulse;
2. The radar switches to listening mode;
3. The pulse is reflected by a target;
4. The radar receives the echoes from the transmitted pulse.
■ Using various properties of the received echo, the radar can extract parameters
such as the range and velocity of the target

Transmitted pulse
Transmitter Duplexer Receiver Reflected pulse
Operating Principles
■ The simplest radar operation can be divided into 4 steps:
1. The radar is transmitting an EM pulse;
2. The radar switches to listening mode;
3. The pulse is reflected by a target;
4. The radar receives the echoes from the transmitted pulse.
■ Using various properties of the received echo, the radar can extract parameters
such as the range and velocity of the target

Transmitted pulse
Transmitter Duplexer Receiver Reflected pulse
Operating Principles
■ The simplest radar operation can be divided into 4 steps:
1. The radar is transmitting an EM pulse;
2. The radar switches to listening mode;
3. The pulse is reflected by a target;
4. The radar receives the echoes from the transmitted pulse.
■ Using various properties of the received echo, the radar can extract parameters
such as the range and velocity of the target

Transmitted pulse
Transmitter Duplexer Receiver Reflected pulse
Operating Principles
■ The simplest radar operation can be divided into 4 steps:
1. The radar is transmitting an EM pulse;
2. The radar switches to listening mode;
3. The pulse is reflected by a target;
4. The radar receives the echoes from the transmitted pulse.
■ Using various properties of the received echo, the radar can extract parameters
such as the range and velocity of the target

Transmitted pulse
Transmitter Duplexer Receiver Reflected pulse
Operating Principles
■ The simplest radar operation can be divided into 4 steps:
1. The radar is transmitting an EM pulse;
2. The radar switches to listening mode;
3. The pulse is reflected by a target;
4. The radar receives the echoes from the transmitted pulse.
■ Using various properties of the received echo, the radar can extract parameters
such as the range and velocity of the target

Transmitted pulse
Transmitter Duplexer Receiver Reflected pulse
Principles of
Measurements
■ Radar Equation
■ Distance Determination
■ Range Resolution
■ Direction Determination
■ Pulse Repetition Interval
■ Maximum Unambiguous Ranges
■ Data Matrix and Data Cube
 O2 O2 H2 O H2 O H 2 O

Radar Equation

Atmospheric loss [dB/Km]

■ The radar equation is referring to the power of
the echo returning to the radar;

𝑃 𝑡 𝐺 2𝜆 2𝜎 4

𝑟 Frequency
𝑃 𝑡 𝐺 2𝜆 2𝜎 [GHz]

𝑃𝑟= → 𝑅=
(4𝜋)3 𝑅 4 𝐿 (4𝜋)3𝐿 𝑃
𝑃𝑡 : Transmit power;
𝐺 : Antenna gain;
𝜆 : Radar operating wavelength;
𝜎 : Target radar cross section (RCS);
𝑅 : Range from the radar to the target;
𝐿 : Other losses (system, propagation).
Top: Expected atmospheric path loss as a function of
■ Low frequencies are preferable for long-range frequency;
Bottom: Mazda 6 RCS, Image courtesy of Hasch et al.
radar;
Distance Determination
■ To determine the distance between the radar and a target, the delay of the echoed
pulse id utilised;
– Given that EM waves travel at 𝒄 = 3 × 108m/s
– If the echo delay is 𝝉, the range of the target is:
𝜏𝑐
𝑹=
2

Emmision of a pulse at 𝒕 = 𝟎;
Time

Pulse reaches the target at 𝒕 = 𝝉/𝟐;

A part of the pulse is reflected to the radar;

The echo from the target is received at 𝒕 = 𝝉.

Range
 𝐷 > 𝑐𝑇/2
Range Resolution
■ The resolution of radar is its ability to

Time
distinguish between targets that are in very
close proximity.
■ The range resolution 𝝆 of a radar is:
Range
𝑐𝑇 𝑐
𝜌≥ ≈
2 2𝐵
𝑻: Duration of pulse 𝐷 < 𝑐𝑇/2
𝑩: Bandwidth of signal
■ Sorter pulses will have higher bandwidth,
leading to better resolution.

Time
Range resolution issue between targets in close proximity with
each other (T) Two resolved targets; (B) One resolved target. Range
Red part denoted the overlap between the two echoes
Direction Determination
■ The target’s direction is determined by the directivity of the antenna, which
represents the ability of the antenna to transmit the energy in a particular direction.
■ Both the target’s azimuth and elevation angles can be determined by measuring the
direction in which the antenna is pointing when the echo signal is received.

Elevation

Azimut
h
Directional Radiation

Left: Radiation pattern of a Helical Antenna

Right: Illumination in different azimuth and elevation angles using a directional antenna.
 Direction Determination (cont.)
■ The antenna can be steered in the desired direction mechanically or electronically.

Example of radar scanning

between two azimuth sectors,
Left: Top view;
Right: Radar indicator;
 Direction Determination (cont.)
■ The antenna can be steered in the desired direction mechanically or electronically.

Example of radar scanning

between two azimuth sectors,
Left: Top view;
Right: Radar indicator;
 Direction Determination (cont.)
■ The antenna can be steered in the desired direction mechanically or electronically.

Example of radar scanning

between two azimuth sectors,
Left: Top view;
Right: Radar indicator;
Pulse repetition Interval

■ Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI) is defined as

the time interval between consequent pulses; PR
■ Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) is given I

as:
PRF = 1/PRI
■ Duty cycle is defined as the time proportion
Transmission Time
of PRI in which the transmission takes place:
Reception
Duty Cycle = 𝑇/PRI
■ If the same antenna is used for transition
and reception, the duty cycle gives a
measure of how long the radar is “blind”.
 Maximum Unambiguous Range
■ The maximum unambiguous range defines the maximum distance to locate a target.
𝑐PRI 𝑐
=
𝑅 max = 2
2PRF
■ Radar is not able to discriminate between echoes from an older and the current
transmission.
𝑅1 𝜏1 = 2𝑅1Τ𝑐
𝑅2 𝜏2 = 2𝑅2Τ𝑐
PR
𝑅 max
I
T1 T2
P1 P1,T1 P2 P1,T2
Range Time
𝑅m ax − 𝑅2
Right: Transmitted (dark) and received pulses (light) at the radar in
Left: Radar and two real targets (dark), one in (T1) and one out time, radar confuses the echo from fist pulse to second target
(T2) of unambiguous range, second target (T2) appears in closer (P1,T2) to an echo from second pulse (P2) and a target at a closer
range (light). range (𝑅 max − 𝑅2).
 Maximum Unambiguous Range
■ The maximum unambiguous range defines the maximum distance to locate a target.
𝑐PRI 𝑐
=
𝑅 max = 2
2PRF
■ Radar is not able to discriminate between echoes from an older and the current
transmission.
𝑅1 𝜏1 = 2𝑅1Τ𝑐
𝑅2 𝜏2 = 2𝑅2Τ𝑐
PR
𝑅 max
I
T1 T2 P2,T1
P1 P1,T1 P2 P1,T2
Range Time
𝑅m ax − 𝑅2
Right: Transmitted (dark) and received pulses (light) at the radar in
Left: Radar and two real targets (dark), one in (T1) and one out time, radar confuses the echo from fist pulse to second target
(T2) of unambiguous range, second target (T2) appears in closer (P1,T2) to an echo from second pulse (P2) and a target at a closer
range (light). range (𝑅 max − 𝑅2).
 Data matrix
■ Radar returns from each PRI are stored in memory for further processing;
■ Fast Time refers to the different time slots composing a PRI, sampling rate dependent;
■ Slow Time updates every PRI;
Sampling Interval≈ 1Τ𝐵

Example of two targets, one staying in the

same resolution bin (orange) and one
Time
Slow

moving in different resolution bins (green);

PR
I Top: Data matrix for 10 time resolution bins
and 4 PRI;
Fast Time Bottom: Radar returns in time;

Time
PR
 Data matrix
■ Radar returns from each PRI are stored in memory for further processing;
■ Fast Time refers to the different time slots composing a PRI, sampling rate dependent;
■ Slow Time updates every PRI;
Sampling Interval≈ 1Τ𝐵

Example of two targets, one staying in the

Time

same resolution bin (orange) and one

Slow

PR moving in different resolution bins (green);

I Top: Data matrix for 10 time resolution bins
and 4 PRI;
Fast Time Bottom: Radar returns in time;

Time
PR
 Data matrix
■ Radar returns from each PRI are stored in memory for further processing;
■ Fast Time refers to the different time slots composing a PRI, sampling rate dependent;
■ Slow Time updates every PRI;
Sampling Interval≈ 1Τ𝐵

Example of two targets, one staying in the

Time

same resolution bin (orange) and one

Slow

PR moving in different resolution bins (green);

I Top: Data matrix for 10 time resolution bins
and 4 PRI;
Fast Time Bottom: Radar returns in time;

Time
PR
 Data matrix
■ Radar returns from each PRI are stored in memory for further processing;
■ Fast Time refers to the different time slots composing a PRI, sampling rate dependent;
■ Slow Time updates every PRI;
Sampling Interval≈ 1Τ𝐵

Example of two targets, one staying in the

Time

same resolution bin (orange) and one

Slow

PR moving in different resolution bins (green);

I Top: Data matrix for 10 time resolution bins
and 4 PRI;
Fast Time Bottom: Radar returns in time;

Time
PR
 Data matrix
■ Radar returns from each PRI are stored in memory for further processing;
■ Fast Time refers to the different time slots composing a PRI, sampling rate dependent;
■ Slow Time updates every PRI;
Sampling Interval≈ 1Τ𝐵

Example of two targets, one staying in the

same resolution bin (orange) and one
Time
Slow

moving in different resolution bins (green);

PR
I Top: Data matrix for 10 time resolution bins
and 4 PRI;
Fast Time Bottom: Radar returns in time;

Time
PR
Data Cube
■ Data Cube is an extension to Data Matrix including spatial sampling;
■ In cases that the radar uses multiple receiving channels, the data matrices from
each receiver are stacked to form a data cube;

Illustration of a data cube for 𝐿 time samples in

each PRI and 𝑀 PRI in a system composed of 𝑁
receiver channels.
𝑁−1
Receiver Channel

0 Slow 𝑀−1
Time
Coherent and Doppler
processing.
■ Spectrum of Continuous Wave Signal;
■ Spectrum of Pulsed Signal;
■ Range-Doppler Maps;
Spectrum of Continuous Wave Signal

■ Consider a continuous wave (CW) radar with

operating frequency 𝑓0;
■ In the presence of a target moving with radial
velocity 𝑢 𝑟 , due to the Doppler phenomenon,
the echoed signal will be shifted in frequency
by:
𝑢𝑟
𝑓𝐷 = 𝑓0
𝑐
■ Positive Doppler shifts (𝑓𝐷 > 0) indicate that
the target is moving towards the radar, while −𝑓𝑠/2 𝑓0 𝑓𝑠/2
negative (𝑓𝐷< 0) away from it;
Stationary radar and moving target scenario: (T) geometry of
the radar target system, (B) frequency observed by the radar
Spectrum of Continuous Wave Signal

■ Consider a continuous wave (CW) radar with

operating frequency 𝑓0;
■ In the presence of a target moving with radial
velocity 𝑢 𝑟 , due to the Doppler phenomenon,
the echoed signal will be shifted in frequency
by:
𝑢𝑟
𝑓𝐷 = 𝑓0
𝑐
■ Positive Doppler shifts (𝑓𝐷 > 0) indicate that
the target is moving towards the radar, while −𝑓𝑠/2 𝑓0 𝑓𝑠/2
negative (𝑓𝐷< 0) away from it;
Stationary radar and moving target scenario: (T) geometry of
the radar target system, (B) frequency observed by the radar
Spectrum of Continuous Wave Signal

■ Consider a continuous wave (CW) radar with

operating frequency 𝑓0;
■ In the presence of a target moving with radial
velocity 𝑢 𝑟 , due to the Doppler phenomenon,
the echoed signal will be shifted in frequency
by:
𝑢𝑟
𝑓𝐷 = 𝑓0
𝑐
■ Positive Doppler shifts (𝑓𝐷 > 0) indicate that
the target is moving towards the radar, while −𝑓𝑠/2 𝑓0 𝑓𝑠/2
negative (𝑓𝐷< 0) away from it;
Stationary radar and moving target scenario: (T) geometry of
the radar target system, (B) frequency observed by the radar
Spectrum of Continuous Wave Signal

■ Consider a continuous wave (CW) radar with

operating frequency 𝑓0;
■ In the presence of a target moving with radial
velocity 𝑢 𝑟 , due to the Doppler phenomenon,
the echoed signal will be shifted in frequency
by:
𝑢𝑟
𝑓𝐷 = 𝑓0
𝑐
■ Positive Doppler shifts (𝑓𝐷 > 0) indicate that
the target is moving towards the radar, while −𝑓𝑠/2 𝑓0 𝑓𝑠/2
negative (𝑓𝐷< 0) away from it;
Stationary radar and moving target scenario: (T) geometry of
the radar target system, (B) frequency observed by the radar
Spectrum of Pulsed Signal
𝑡
−𝑇/2 𝑇/2

T
F
■ In most radar systems, the bandwidth of a
single pulse may be a few orders of magnitude
greater than the expected Doppler frequency 𝑓
−1/𝑇 1/𝑇
shift:
1≫ 𝑓
𝐷
𝑇
𝑡
■ Echoes from moving targets cannot be 0 𝑇 2𝑇
−2𝑇 −𝑇
discriminated from stationary clatter in CPI
spectrum;

T
F
■ Using consequent pulsed over a coherent PRF
pulse interval (CPI), the single pulse
bandwidth is divided into spectral line of
approximate bandwidth 1/CPI. 𝑓
−2/𝑇 −1/𝑇 1/𝑇 2/𝑇
Spectrum of Pulsed Signal
𝑡
−𝑇/2 𝑇/2

T
F
■ In most radar systems, the bandwidth of a
single pulse may be a few orders of magnitude
greater than the expected Doppler frequency 𝑓
−1/𝑇 1/𝑇
shift:
1≫ 𝑓
𝐷
𝑇
𝑡
■ Echoes from moving targets cannot be 0 𝑇 2𝑇
−2𝑇 −𝑇
discriminated from stationary clatter in CPI
spectrum;

T
F
■ Using consequent pulsed over a coherent PRF
pulse interval (CPI), the single pulse
bandwidth is divided into spectral line of
approximate bandwidth 1/CPI. 𝑓
−2/𝑇 −1/𝑇 1/𝑇 2/𝑇
Spectrum of Pulsed Signal
𝑡
−𝑇/2 𝑇/2

T
F
■ In most radar systems, the bandwidth of a
single pulse may be a few orders of
magnitude greater than the expected 𝑓
Doppler −1/𝑇 1/𝑇
frequency shift:
1≫ 𝑓
𝐷
𝑇
𝑡
−2𝑇 −𝑇 0 𝑇 2𝑇
■ Echoes from moving targets cannot be CPI
discriminated from stationary clatter in
spectrum;

T
F
PRF
■ Using consequent pulsed over a coherent
pulse interval (CPI), the single pulse
bandwidth is divided into spectral line of −2/𝑇 −1/𝑇 1/𝑇 2/𝑇
𝑓
approximate bandwidth 1/CPI.
 Range-Doppler Maps
■ In a moving target the phase information appears in each received pulse.
■ Different returns can be separated in the Doppler domain.
■ Range-Doppler map is contracting by converting Fast time to Range and Slow time
to Doppler by applying Fourier Transform.

CPI

FFT

FFT
Fast Time

Range
FFT

Slow Time

Doppler
Scenario of 3 targets: two in the same range bin and different velocity (green and orange) and one in different
Waveforms Design and
Pulse Compression
■ Noise and Interference
■ Matched Filter
■ Pulse compression
■ Linear Frequency Modulation
■ Ambiguity Function
 Noise and Interference
■ Noise is a random, unwanted signal characterised by statistical properties;
■ Sources of interference can be internal (equipment imperfections) or external (other
RF transmissions), passive (clutter) or active (jammers);
■ The power ratio between the useful and unwanted signal is defined as signal-to
interfered-plus-noise ratio (SINR):
SINR = 𝑃 Signal → SNR = 𝑃 Signal
𝑃 Interfernce + 𝑃 Noise 𝑃 Noise
1

2 Threshold
Amplitude

Example of a high SNR target (1) and a false detection (2),

the radar is not able to discriminate between interference and
(dB)

low SNR targets [Principles of Modern Radar - Mark A

Richards].

Sample Number
Matched Filter
■ The knowledge of the transmitted signal is utilised to
design a linear filter that maximises the SNR;

Amplitude
■ In the presence of additive Gaussian noise, the optimum
filter is a time reversed version of the transmitted signal
(“matched”); Range
ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑥 ∗ (𝜏 max − 𝑡)
: Matched filter of 𝑥(𝑡);

Amplitude
ℎ(𝑡)
{∙}∗ : Complex conjugate;
: Time instant in which the SNR is maximised;
𝜏 max
■ For noise given by 𝒞𝒩 0, 𝜎 2 , the maximum SNR is:
Range
SNR max = 𝐸2
𝜎 Range profile with a target at the red
𝐸: Energy of the pulse. line (T) before and (B) after matched
filter.
■ The output of the matched filter is the auto-correlation of
the pulse.
Pulse Compression
Mainlobe
Width

■ Sort pulses provide good resolution but not enough

energy for long distances;
■ The resolution is (almost) proportional to the 0
Time Delay
bandwidth;
■ Using pulse compression long waveforms (high Mainlobe
energy) can achieve the resolution of a short pulse by
increasing their bandwidth through internal Mainlobe
modulation; Width
Peak
■ A side effect of pulse compression is the rise of Sidelobe
Sidelobes
undesired sidelobes;
0
Matched filter output of (T) an unmodulated square Time Delay
pulse and (B) a linear frequency modulated pulse.
Linear Frequency Modulation
LF
M
■ Pulse compression can be achieved using frequency
modulation (FM);
■ Linear FM (LFM) is a very popular choice;
■ LFM achieve high resolution while keeping the H/W

Frequency
implementation relative simple; B

𝐵
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗 𝜋 𝐵 Τ𝑇 𝑡 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
𝑓 = 𝐵2𝑇𝑡 : Instantaneous frequency; 𝑇

■ LFM suffer from high sidelobe levels (SLL); Time

■ Using non-linear FM (NLFM) the SLL can be reduced Top: Real part of (L) an unmodulated pulse and
but are more complex to generate. (R) a LFM pulse;
Bottom: Time-Frequency profile of a LFM pulse.
Ambiguity Function –
Definition
■ The ambiguity function (AF) is a 2-D function describing the response of a matched
filter when the signal is received with a delay 𝝉 and a Doppler shift 𝒇𝑫 relative to the
expected:
𝐴 𝜏, 𝑓𝐷 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 ∗ 𝑡 + 𝜏 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋 𝑓 𝐷 𝑡
■ The zero-Doppler cut of the AF is given by the autocorrelation of the pulse:
𝐴 𝜏, 0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥∗ 𝑡 + 𝜏
■ The zero-Delay cut of the AF is given by the Fourier Transform (FT) of the squared
modulus of the pulse:
𝐴 0, 𝑓𝐷 = 2 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋 𝑓 𝐷
𝑥 𝑡 𝑡
Ambiguity Function –
Definition
■ The ambiguity function (AF) is a 2-D function describing the response of a matched
filter when the signal is received with a delay 𝝉 and a Doppler shift 𝒇𝑫 relative to the
expected:
𝐴 𝜏, 𝑓𝐷 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 ∗ 𝑡 + 𝜏 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋 𝑓 𝐷 𝑡
■ The zero-Doppler cut of the AF is given by the autocorrelation of the pulse:
𝐴 𝜏, 0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥∗ 𝑡 + 𝜏
■ The zero-Delay cut of the AF is given by the Fourier Transform (FT) of the squared
modulus of the pulse:
𝐴 0, 𝑓𝐷 = 2 𝑒 𝑗 2𝜋 𝑓 𝐷
𝑥 𝑡 𝑡
 Ambiguity Function – Examples

Doppler shift Time

Illustration of the AF for (L) an unmodulated pulse, (R) a LFM.

 Ambiguity Function – Examples

Doppler shift Time

Illustration of the AF for (L) an unmodulated pulse, (R) a LFM. Resolution

 Ambiguity Function – Examples

Doppler shift Time

Illustration of the AF for (L) an unmodulated pulse, (R) a LFM. Side Lobe Levels
 Ambiguity Function – Examples

Doppler shift Time

Illustration of the AF for (L) an unmodulated pulse, (R) a LFM. Time-Frequency Response
Closing Remarks

■ Basic radar principles were discussed;

■ Introduction on radar acquisitions and signal
processing;
■ Introduction on pulse compression and
waveform
design tools;
Reading Material

■ Principles Of Modern Radar: Basic Principles

– Mark A Richards;
■ Radar Signals
– Nadav Levanon;
■ Radar System Analysis and Design Using
MATLAB
– Bassem R. Mahafza.