CH4 Part One

Register Transfer and

Microoperations
Course Text Book Reference:
Computer System Architecture
– 3rd Edition, by M. Morris Mano, 1993
 3

Chap. 4: Register Transfer and Microoperations

• Register Transfer Language,

• Register Transfer
• Bus and Memory Transfers
• Arithmetic Microoperations
• Logic Microoperations, • Shift Microoperations
• Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit

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 Register Transfer & -operations 4

SIMPLE DIGITAL SYSTEMS

• Combinational and sequential circuits (learned in Chapters 1 and 2)

can be used to create simple digital systems.

• These are the low-level building blocks of a digital computer.

• Simple digital systems are frequently characterized in terms of

– the registers they contain, and
– the operations that they perform.

• Typically,
– What operations are performed on the data in the registers
– What information is passed between registers

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 Register Transfer & -operations 5

REGISTER TRANSFER AND MICROOPERATIONS

• Register Transfer Language

• Register Transfer

• Bus and Memory Transfers

• Arithmetic Microoperations

• Logic Microoperations

• Shift Microoperations

• Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit

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 Register Transfer & -operations 6 Register Transfer Language

MICROOPERATIONS (1)

• The operations on the data in registers are called

microoperations.
• The functions built into registers are examples of
microoperations
– Shift
– Load
– Clear
– Increment
– …

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 Register Transfer & -operations 7 Register Transfer Language

MICROOPERATION (2)

An elementary operation performed (during

one clock pulse), on the information stored
in one or more registers

Registers ALU 1 clock cycle

(R) (f)

R  f(R, R)
f: shift, load, clear, increment, add, subtract, complement,
and, or, xor, …
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 Register Transfer & -operations 8 Register Transfer Language

ORGANIZATION OF A DIGITAL SYSTEM

• Definition of the (internal) organization of a computer

- Set of registers and their functions

- Microoperations set

Set of allowable microoperations provided

by the organization of the computer

- Control signals that initiate the sequence of

microoperations (to perform the functions)

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 Register Transfer & -operations 9 Register Transfer Language

REGISTER TRANSFER LEVEL

• Viewing a computer, or any digital system, in this way is

called the register transfer level

• This is because we’re focusing on

– The system’s registers
– The data transformations in them, and
– The data transfers between them.

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 Register Transfer & -operations 10 Register Transfer Language

REGISTER TRANSFER LANGUAGE

• Rather than specifying a digital system in words, a specific

notation is used, register transfer language

• For any function of the computer, the register transfer

language can be used to describe the (sequence of)
microoperations

• Register transfer language

– A symbolic language
– A convenient tool for describing the internal organization of digital
computers
– Can also be used to facilitate the design process of digital systems.

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 Register Transfer & -operations 11 Register Transfer Language

DESIGNATION OF REGISTERS

• Registers are designated by capital letters, sometimes

followed by numbers (e.g., A, R13, IR)
• Often the names indicate function:
– MAR - memory address register
– PC - program counter
– IR - instruction register

• Registers and their contents can be viewed and represented in

various ways
– A register can be viewed as a single entity:

MAR

– Registers may also be represented showing the bits of data they contain

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 Register Transfer & -operations 12 Register Transfer Language

DESIGNATION OF REGISTERS
• Designation of a register
- a register
- portion of a register
- a bit of a register

• Common ways of drawing the block diagram of a register

Register Showing individual bits

R1 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

15 0 15 8 7 0
R2 PC(H) PC(L)
Numbering of bits Subfields

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 Register Transfer & -operations 13 Register Transfer

REGISTER TRANSFER

• Copying the contents of one register to another is a register

transfer

• A register transfer is indicated as

R2  R1

– In this case the contents of register R2 are copied (loaded) into register R1
– A simultaneous transfer of all bits from the source R1 to the destination register R2, during one clock pulse
– Note that this is a non-destructive; i.e. the contents of R1 are not altered by copying (loading) them to R2

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 Register Transfer & -operations 14 Register Transfer

REGISTER TRANSFER

• A register transfer such as

R3  R5

Implies that the digital system has

– the data lines from the source register (R5) to the destination register (R3)
– Parallel load in the destination register (R3)
– Control lines to perform the action

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 Register Transfer & -operations 15 Register Transfer

CONTROL FUNCTIONS
• Often actions need to only occur if a certain condition is true
• This is similar to an “if” statement in a programming language
• In digital systems, this is often done via a control signal, called
a control function
– If the signal is 1, the action takes place

• This is represented as:

P: R2  R1

Which means “if P = 1, then load the contents of register R1 into register R2”, i.e., if (P = 1) then (R2  R1)

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 Register Transfer & -operations 16 Register Transfer

HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF CONTROLLED TRANSFERS

Implementation of controlled transfer

P: R2 R1

Block diagram Control P Load

R2 Clock
Circuit
n
R1

t t+1
Timing diagram
Clock

Load
Transfer occurs here

• The same clock controls the circuits that generate the control function
and the destination register
• Registers are assumed to use positive-edge-triggered flip-flops

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 Register Transfer & -operations 17 Register Transfer

SIMULTANEOUS OPERATIONS

• If two or more operations are to occur

simultaneously, they are separated with commas

P: R3  R5, MAR  IR
• Here, if the control function P = 1, load the contents
of R5 into R3, and at the same time (clock), load the
contents of register IR into register MAR

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 Register Transfer & -operations 18 Register Transfer

BASIC SYMBOLS FOR REGISTER TRANSFERS

Symbols Description Examples

Capital letters Denotes a register MAR, R2
& numerals
Parentheses () Denotes a part of a register R2(0-7), R2(L)

Arrow  Denotes transfer of information R2  R1

Colon : Denotes termination of control function P:
Comma , Separates two micro-operations A  B, B 
A

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 Register Transfer & -operations 19 Register Transfer

CONNECTING REGISTRS

• In a digital system with many registers, it is impractical to

have data and control lines to directly allow each register
to be loaded with the contents of every possible other
registers

• To completely connect n registers  n(n-1) lines

• O(n2) cost
– This is not a realistic approach to use in a large digital system

• Instead, take a different approach

• Have one centralized set of circuits for data transfer – the
bus
• Have control circuits to select which register is the
source, and which is the destination

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 Register Transfer & -operations 20 Bus and Memory Transfers

BUS AND BUS TRANSFER

Bus is a path(of a group of wires) over which information is
transferred, from any of several sources to any of several destinations.
From a register to bus: BUS  R
Register A Register B Register C Register D

Bus lines

Register A Register B Register C Register D

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

B1 C1 D 1 B2 C2 D 2 B3 C3 D 3 B4 C4 D 4

0 0 0 0
4 x1 4 x1 4 x1 4 x1
MUX MUX MUX MUX

x
select
y

4-line bus

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 Register Transfer & -operations 21 Bus and Memory Transfers

TRANSFER FROM BUS TO A DESTINATION REGISTER

Bus lines

Load
Reg. R0 Reg. R1 Reg. R2 Reg. R3

D 0 D1 D2 D 3
z E (enable)
Select 2x4
w
Decoder

Three-State Bus Buffers

Normal input A Output Y=A if C=1
High-impedence if C=0
Control input C

Bus line with three-state buffers

Bus line for bit 0
A0
B0
C0
D0

S0 0
Select 1
S1 2
Enable 3

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 Register Transfer & -operations 22 Bus and Memory Transfers

BUS TRANSFER IN RTL

• Depending on whether the bus is to be mentioned

explicitly or not, register transfer can be indicated as
either
R2 R1
or
BUS R1, R2  BUS

• In the former case the bus is implicit, but in the latter, it is

explicitly indicated

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 Register Transfer & -operations 23 Bus and Memory Transfers

MEMORY (RAM)
• Memory (RAM) can be thought as a sequential circuits
containing some number of registers
• These registers hold the words of memory
• Each of the r registers is indicated by an address
• These addresses range from 0 to r-1
• Each register (word) can hold n bits of data
• Assume the RAM contains r = 2k words. It needs the
following
– n data input lines
data input lines
– n data output lines
– k address lines n
– A Read control line
address lines
– A Write control line
k
RAM
Read
unit
Write
n
data output lines

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 Register Transfer & -operations 24 Bus and Memory Transfers

MEMORY TRANSFER
• Collectively, the memory is viewed at the register level as
a device, M.
• Since it contains multiple locations, we must specify
which address in memory we will be using
• This is done by indexing memory references

• Memory is usually accessed in computer systems by

putting the desired address in a special register, the
Memory Address Register (MAR, or AR)
• When memory is accessed, the contents of the MAR get
sent to the memory unit’s address lines

M
Memory Read
AR
unit Write

Data out Data in

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 Register Transfer & -operations 25 Bus and Memory Transfers

MEMORY READ

• To read a value from a location in memory and load it into

a register, the register transfer language notation looks
like this:
R1  M[MAR]

• This causes the following to occur

– The contents of the MAR get sent to the memory address lines
– A Read (= 1) gets sent to the memory unit
– The contents of the specified address are put on the memory’s
output data lines
– These get sent over the bus to be loaded into register R1

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 Register Transfer & -operations 26 Bus and Memory Transfers

MEMORY WRITE

• To write a value from a register to a location in memory

looks like this in register transfer language:

M[MAR]  R1
• This causes the following to occur
– The contents of the MAR get sent to the memory address lines
– A Write (= 1) gets sent to the memory unit
– The values in register R1 get sent over the bus to the data input lines
of the memory
– The values get loaded into the specified address in the memory

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 Register Transfer & -operations 27 Bus and Memory Transfers

SUMMARY OF R. TRANSFER MICROOPERATIONS

A B Transfer content of reg. B into reg. A

AR DR(AD) Transfer content of AD portion of reg. DR into reg. AR
A  constant Transfer a binary constant into reg. A
ABUS  R1, Transfer content of R1 into bus A and, at the same
time,
R2 ABUS transfer content of bus A into R2
AR Address register
DR Data register
M[R] Memory word specified by reg. R
M Equivalent to M[AR]
DR  M Memory read operation: transfers content of
memory word specified by AR into DR
M  DR Memory write operation: transfers content of
DR into memory word specified by AR

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Home work

Solve the following problems from the CH4 of the text book “Computer
System Architecture” 3rd Edition, by M. Morris Mano
4-1, 4-3, 4-6, 4-7

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